W3 
opy 1 



State Control of Instruction 



A STUDY OF CENTRALIZATION IN 
PUBLIC EDUCATION 



BY 

AUGUST WILLIAM WEBER 

Profesaor of Psychology and Education, Cleveland Normal Training School 



tnn 



A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

1911 



CLEVELAND, OHIO 
1914 



State Control of Instruction 



A STUDY OF CENTRALIZATION IN 
PUBLIC EDUCATION 



BY 

AUGUST WILLIAM WEBER 

Professor of Psychology and Education, Cleveland Normal Training School 



A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 

1911 



CLEVELAND, OHIO 
1914 



C. of D. 

.PR 17 *d 5 



b^ 



e.^' 



b 






to 



CONTENTS PAGE 

Introduction 4 

The centralizing tendency of public education — The pur- 
_ pose of this dissertation. 

Chapter I — Historical Sketch 5 

The early colonists — The act of 1642 — The act of 1647 — Free 
schools in colonial times — Religious control of colonial schools — 
The later colonial period — -The origin of the district school — 
"^ State systems of education — -Causes of centralization — Evidences 

of centralization. 

Chapter II — Elementary Education 19 

The need of education — The necessity for state control — The 
meaning of state control — Elementary education of first con- 
sideration — The cvirriculum as a controlling factor — Constitu- 
tional provisions — Means of control of curricula — Statute 
requirements — State courses of study — Extent of centralized 
control — Exceptional requirements — Enrichment and elimina- 
tion — Authority of school boards over courses of study — School 
efficiency — Eighth grade examination — State subsidies — State 
supervision of school buildings — The centralizing tendency a 
recent growth. 

Chapter Ill^Secondary Education 38 

The need of secondary education — The origin of the high 
school — State requirements as to courses of study — Extent of 
state control — Minimum requiremertts — The aim of the high 
school — State aid — Manual and industrial training — Agricul- 
ture — Selection and adoption of textbooks — Examination and 
certification of teachers — Centralization of control. 

Chapter IV — Foreign Language Instruction 55 

Language a vehicle of thought and expression — Language a 
unifying force — Value of foreign language study — Foreign 
language as a medium of instruction — Judicial decisions regard- 
ing foreign language instruction — -Public school education 
must be English. 

Chapter V — Special Elements of the Curriculum 68 

Physiology and hygiene — Patriotism — Arbor Day — Bird Day — 
Humane education. 

Chapter VI — Moral and Religious Education 85 

The demand for moral training — Legal provisions for moral 
instruction — Constitutional provisions regarding religious in- 
struction — Statutory provisions regarding religious instruc- 
tion — Legal decisions regarding religious instruction — The 
state the factor of control. 

Chapter VII — Inspection and Supervision 10-1 

Importance of supervision — State superintendent — State courses 
■ of study — State board of education — State supervision — State 
supervision of recent growth. 

Chapter VIII — Influence of Higher Institutions on Sec- 
ondary Courses of Study 12( ) 

The purpose of this discussion — The accrediting system — 
College domination. 



STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 



INTRODUCTION. 
The Centralizing Tendency of Public Education. 

At any period of the world's history the dominant institution 
has had control of education. The family, the tribe, the guild, 
the church, have at various times in the history of man, wielded 
the scepter of learning. The most dominant power of modern 
society is the state, and the underlying principle of American 
civilization is justice and equity. With the growth of the spirit 
of democracy this principle has become felt in education. To 
provide equal opportunities for all. the state has assumed greater 
and greater control in the administration of public education in 
the United States. In less than a century a transformation has 
taken place. From a state of extreme decentralization, as repre- 
sented by the early colonial schools, has evolved one of increas- 
mg centralized power in constituted school authorities. Modern 
public education is characterized by the increasing control ex- 
ercised by the state. The trend of development has been toward 
the firmer establishment of a wider and more effective state su- 
premacy over education. 

The Purpose of This Dissertation. 

Among the most significant factors of this centralizing pro- 
cess is the curriculum of the public scliool. It is the purpose of 
this dissertation to analyze and set forth the contemporary status 
of this state-controlled curriculum of elementary and secondary 
public schools, to display the sharp distinction between the modern 
centralized state school and the decentralized institution from 
which it has developed. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 



CHAPTER I. 
HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

The Early Colonists. 

The history of education in the United States had its begin- 
ning with the first permanent Enghsh settlement. The early New 
England colonists came from the foremost of European peoples. 

"Never since, in the history of our country has the popula- 
tion as a class been so highly educated as during the first half 
century of the Massachusetts settlements. One man in every 
250 had been graduated from an English university, and both 
clergy and laity had brought enviable reputations for superior 
service both in church and college."^ 

Though Puritanism was "the consummate flower of English 
intellect."- it must be remembered that the emigrants shared the 
prevailing opinions, prejudices, and modes of thinking of the 
English at that day." They came to reproduce, as far as circum- 
stances would permit, their English life. They recognized class 
distinctions and first set about erecting colleges for the training 
of the aristocracy for the Church and the State. 

The Act of 16^1:2. 

The first legislation found in colonial records upon the sub- 
ject of education, excepting that in reference to Harvard College, 
is the act passed June 14, 1642 : 

"This Cort, taking into consideration the great neglect of 
many parents & masters in training up their children in learning. 



1 Dexter: History of Educaton in the U. S., p. 24. 

2 Martin: Evolution of tlie iMassachusett.s Public School System, p. 2. 

3 "In reckoning- the mental outfit of the first comers we should only 
mislead ourselves "by recalling- the names of Johnson and Shakespeare 
and the other lights that -were shining -when the Susan Constant and 
her two little consorts sailed out of the Thames to bear a company of 
English people to the James River. Nor will it avail much to remember 
that Milton was a Puritan at the same time with Cotton and Hooker 
and Winthrop. The emigrants bad no considerable part in the higher 
intellectual life of the age; the great artistic passions of Shakespeare 
and Milton touched them not at any point. Bacon's contributions to 
the art of finding truth did not belong to them. Men may live in the 
same time without being Intellectual contemporaries." — Eggleston: The 
Transit of Civilization, p. 2. 



6 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

& labor, & other implyments which may be proffitable to the com- 
mon wealth, do hereupon order and decree, that in every towne 
ye chosen men appointed for managing' the prudentiall affajres 
of the same shall henceforth stand charged with the care of the 
redresse of this evill, so as they shall be sufficiently punished by 
fines for the neglect thereof, upon presentment of the grand iury, 
or other information or complaint in any Court within this juris- 
diction ; and for this end they, or the greater number of them, 
'^hall have power to take account from time to time of all parents 
and masters, and of their children, concerning their calling and 
implyment of their children, especially of their ability to read & 
understand the principles of religion & the capitall lawes of this 
country, and to impose fines upon such as shall refuse to render 
such accounts to them when they shall be required."^ 

While this act made education compulsory, it did not pro- 
vide schools nor teachers, but the children as before had to se- 
cure their training at home, from private teachers, or in volun- 
tary schools. Five years later the General Court of Massachu- 
setts enacted the general law which laid the foundation for the 
common school system. 

The Act of 1647. 

"It being one chief e piect of yt ould deluder, Sathan, to 
keepe men from ye knowledge of ye Scriptures, as in formr 
times by keeping ym in an unknown tongue, so in these lattr 
times by pswading from ye use of tongues, yt so at least ye true 
sense & meaning of ye originall might be clouded by false glosses 
of saint seeming deceivers, yt learning may not be buried in ye 
grave of or fathrs in ye church & commonwealth, the Lord as- 
sisting or endeavors, — 

"It is therefore ordred, yt evry towneship in this iurisdiction 
aftr ye Lord hath increased ym to ye number of 50 householdrs, 
shall then forthwth appoint one wthin their towne to teach all 
such children as shall resort to him to write and reade, whose 
wages shall be paid eithr by ye parents or mastrs of such children, 
or by ye inhabitants in genrall, by way of supply, as ye maior pt 
of those yt ordr ye prudentials of ye towne shall appoint ; pvided, 
those yt send their children be not oppressed by paying much 
more yn they can have ym taught for in othr townes ; & it is fur- 
thr ordered, yt where any towne shall increase to ye numbr of 
100' families or householdrs they shall set up a grammer schoole, 
ye mr thereof being able to instruct youth so farr as they may 
be fited for ye university ; pvided, yt if any towne neglect ye 



4 Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay 
in New England, Vol. II, p. 6. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 7 

pfoTiiiance hereof above one yeare, yt such towne shah pay 5t to 
ye next schoole till they shall pforme this order."' 

This act recognized elementary, secondary, and higher edu- 
cation. While the act of 1643 made education compulsory, it pro- 
vided neither schools nor teachers. The act of 1647, though the 
responsibility of educating children still rested on parents and 
masters, compelled the towns to supply the schools. 

The Character of Colonial Schools. 

How effective this legislation became in the history of Massa- 
chusetts it is not easy to determine. Reading and writing were 
required to be taught in the first elementary schools, while Latin 
formed by far the major part of the secondary instruction. 

"Latin was apparently three-quarters of the curriculum in 
most of the grammar schools, or more likely nine-tenths of it, 
or nineteen-twentieths."*^ 

Dr. Hinsdale characterizes the early colonial schools in these 
words : 

"In general it may be said that the system of education es- 
tablished in those early years grew for a time with the growth 
of the commonwealth. The many learned to write and read in 
the elementary schools ; the few fitted for college in the Latin 
schools and graduated at Harvard."'' 
Fiske expresses a similar view : 

"The people of Colonial New England were not all well-edu- 
cated, nor were all their country schools better than old field 
schools. The farmer's boy, who was taught for two winter 
months by a man and two summer months by a woman, seldom 
learned more in the district school than how to read, write and 
cipher."^ 

In the other New England colonies, founded by men of the 
same character, under quite similar economic conditions, educa- 
tional events followed like courses. The Massachusetts schools 
served as models for the neighboring colonies, although they did 
not achieve such progress as was attained by the older com- 
monwealth. It cannot be said that any of the colonies were in- 
different to education, but outside of New England it did not 



5 Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay 
in New England, Vol. II, p. 203. 

6 Brown: The Making" of Our Middle Schools, p. 133. 

7 Hinsdale: Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 
United States, p. 7. 

s Fiske: Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, Vol. II, p. 251. 



S STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

j^ecome a matter of public concern. Such attention as it received 
was more largely private, and fell far short of that of Massachu- 
setts. The difference between the early New England settlers 
and those of Virginia and other southern colonies, the isolated 
plantations, and the absence of community life, precluded the es- 
tablishment of such schools as were found in New England. 

"Still it cannot be doubted that, down to the beginning of 
the Common School Revival, the other states were all far in the 
rear of Massachusetts and Connecticut. For this there were 
many reasons, some external and some internal. Nowhere out- 
side of New England do we find that intense town life which 
did so much to stimulate men's minds, including schools and 
learning. And nowhere else, save among the Scotch-Irish of the 
frontiers, did the prevailing type of religious belief and eccelesias- 
tical organization tend so strongly to diffuse intelligence and 
promote education. There was a wide interval between the 
planters of the South, for instance, and the farmers, law3^ers, 
ministers, and tradesmen of the New England States. Learning 
held no such place in the mind of the one as in the mind of the 
other. The typical Virginian was a man of vigorous faculties, 
knowledge of the world, force of character, and book education 
sufficient for his purposes ; he bore himself well on the plaiitation 
and in the hunting field, in the vestry meeting, at the hustings, 
and in the House of Burgesses ; but he was no theologian, dia- 
lectician, or scholar. He was a Protestant, indeed, but he be- 
longed to the Established Qiurch, which was always sluggish in 
respect to popular education as compared with the more ^. igorous 
dissenting bodies that have done such great things for education 
on the Continent, in Great Britain, and in the United States. 
Finally, at the South slavery was an important factor that the 
historian who treats the subject thoroughly must deal with.""-' 

Clifton Johnson gives this description of the schools in the 
South : 

'T have been describing educational conditions particularly as 
they were in New England. Though far from ideal, these con- 
ditions were nevertheless better than in any other part of the 
country. Especially in the South, with its widelv separated 
houses and few villages, the environment was in everv way un- 
favorable for maintaining public schools. The children of 
wealthy planters were usually taught by private tutors or sent to 
England to be educated ; yet once in a wliile a planter would start 
a little school for the benefit of his own children and the other 



9 Hinsdale: Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 
United States, p. 34. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH V 

white children who chanced to live on or near his plantation. The 
teachers of snch plantation schools were apt to be redemptioners 
and exported convicts. In Europe at the time, the lot of the 
poor was extremely hard, and many persons came across the At- 
lantic solely to escape the inevitable misery at home. The cap- 
tain of the ship that brought over a penniless man of this class 
was allowed to sell him for four years to pay his passage. It was 
also customary to transport men who had been convicted of small 
crimes and sell them for periods of greater or less length. When 
one of these unfortunates could read and write, he sometimes was 
purchased for a schoolmaster, and teachers of this kind were 
common, both in the Southern and Middle colonies. Not infre- 
quently they were coarse and degraded and they did not cdways 
stay their time, as is witnessed by advertisements like the follow- 
ing" in the newspapers of the period. Ran away : A servant man 
who followed the occupation of a schoolmaster, much given to 
drinking and gambling."^- 

Hinsdale speaks in a similar way when he sa3^s : 
"Southern gentlemen sometimes owned the teachers of their 
children : convicts or indentured persons whom they purchased 
of the skippers that laid them down in the harbors. There is an 
old story, not very well authenticated, that Washington received 
his early lessons from a convict servant whom his father had 
bought in the market The ministers of the churches o^ten eked 
out their slender salaries and contributed to the enlightenment 
of their several communities by teaching school, and, perhaps 
still oftener, by teaching private pupils."" 

Free Schools in Colonial Times. 

The schools of colonial times, with the possible exception of 
Massachusetts were not free. In fact, in most localities the later 
public schools had their genesis in private or charitable under- 
takings. 

"When other means of education were lacking, the laws or- 
dered that the parents themselves should impart instruction to 
their children. But most communities contrived to Have a dame 
school. There was always some woman in every neighborhood 
who, for a small amoimt of money, was willing to take charge 
of the children and teach them the rudiments of knowledge. The 
older and larger towns had their dame schools, as well as the 
pioneer villages, and they were everywhere a chief dependence 
for elementary instruction ; yet they were seldom at first town 



10 Clifton Johnson: Old Time Schools and School Books, p. 32. 

11 Hinsdale: Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 
U. S., p. 36. 



10 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

schools, and none of them were free for a long time 

The school dame did not usnally find the labor of teaching very 
onerous. While she heard the smaller pupils recite their letters, 
and the older ones read and spell from their primers, she busied 
her fingers with knitting and sewing, and in the intervals between 
lessons sometimes worked at the spinning wheel. An interesting 
instance of school-dame industry occurs in the annals of North- 
field, Mass. The first teacher in the town was a woman hired 
to care for a class of little ones twenty-two weeks in the warm 
season. Besides the neighbor's children, she had four of her own 
to look after, yet her energies were by no means exhausted, and 
the semi-leisure of the schoolroom allowed her to work quite 
steadily making shirts for the Indians at eight pence each."^- 

The idea of universal public education was one of slow 
growth. 

"Taking our stand at the point where the half-mediseval 
seventeenth gives place to the far. more modern eighteenth cen- 
tury, we can see that the thousand-year-old exclusive instruction 
of the few was in process of slow transformation into a scheme 
of popular and universal education. As usual in such a metamor- 
phosis, the change was made by insensible gradations ; the con- 
tinuity without apparent seam."^^ 

Martin speaking of the free schools of Massachusetts says : 

"When this result had been reached, about the middle of 
eighteenth century, Massachusetts stood alone in the world. Ex- 
cepting New Hampshire, which was so closely identified with 
Massachusetts as to be thought of with it, no other state in the 
Union had a free-school system. Connecticut had public schools, 
but they were not free until later. New York had no public 
school system of any kind at this time, and had no free-school 
system until a century later. The European systems furnished 
free schooling only to the poor."^'^ 

But the whole environment and the very life of the colonists 
was such as to lead them to unite their forces, and they in time 
became more democratic. When, however, they gained a larger 
view of education and recognized its desirability for the many as 
well as the few, it was because they saw its value to the individ- 
ual. They did not at once realize that the very safety of their 
government depended on the diffusion of learning among all the 
people. As late as 1838, at a convention called in Trenton, this 



12 Clifton Johnson: Old Time Schools and School Books, p. 24. 

13 Eg-gleston: The Transit of Civilization, p. 237. 

14 Martin: The Evolution of the Mas.sachusetts Public School System, 
p. 52. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 11 

question is argued at length in an address to the people of New 
Jersey. 

"In the theory of our constitution, the people are the govern- 
ors. In practice they ought to be. And is ignorance the quali- 
fication for good government? Would you select a man to make 
your laws who cannot read? Or one who cannot write to exe- 
ciite them ? Yet the authority which they exercise, and the abuses 
of which they are capable, are nothing, in comparison with them 
from whom all power proceeds, and without whose permission no 
wrong can be done. Fellow citizens, we are republicans. Our 
country is our commonwealth. We have all an equal share in 
her. Her laws are alike for the protection of all. Her blessings 
are our common privileges. Her glory is our common pride. .But 
common privileges impose a common responsibility. x\nd equal 
rights can never be disjoined from equal duties. The constitution 
which, under God, secures our liberties, is in the keeping of all. 
It is a sacred trust Avhich no man can delegate. He holds it for 
himself, not for his children, for posterity, and for the world. 
And he who cannot read it, who does not understand its provis- 
ions, who could not on a just occasion, assert its principles, no 
more sustains the character of an American citizen, than the man 
who would not seal it with his blood. It is in vain to say that 
education is a private matter, and that it is the duty of every 
parent to provide for the instruction of his own children. In 
theory it is so. But there are some who can not, and there are 
more who will not make provision. And the question then is, 
shall the state suffer from individual inability or from individual 
neglect ?"^^ 

Gradually, hovi^ever, with the change of industrial and social 
conditions, better public opinion prevailed and free tax-supported 
schools came as a result. 

"But the logic of events led straight to free schools. The 
question, whether those who used the schools or the inhabitants 
of the town should maintain them in whole or in j;art, v/as left 
to those to determine w4io ordered the prudentials of the town, 
and these inclined more and more to town support. The cost of 
the schools tended to outgrow the ability of parents and guardians 
to keep them up ; while private benevolence is commonly slow 
when the public authorities can touch the lever of public taxation. 
The poor were unable to pay the tuition of their children, and 
discrimination between the poor and the rich was odious in the 
democratic atmosphere that surrounded the colony. And so the 
germs planted in 1(U2 and 1647 continued to grow until, about 



1". Barnard: American Pedagogy, p. 314. 



12 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

tlie middle of the eighteenth centur}'. the schools became prac- 
tically free."^^' 

Religious Control of Colonial Schools. 

During the colonial period, the schools were largely fostered 
in the interests of religion and the administration of educational 
affairs rested largely with the clergy. 

"In the Colonial time the common schools in New England 
were closely affiliated with the Church. The clergy used them, 
as they used their pulpits, and probably more effectively, as means 
of propogating their theological system. In the other states also 
education had a strong ecclesiastical basis. "^' 

Great emphasis was laid on religious instruction. 

"Powers of darkness and of light were struggling for the 
possession of every child ; there was no time to lose. Every op- 
portunity must be improved b}^ parents, ministers, and teachers 
to pluck the children as brands from the burning.^* One of his 
(the schoolmaster's) greatest obligations was to catechise the 
children on the sermon of the previous Sunday, and require them 
to rack their skulls for the text, for the subject, and for most of 
the moving passages. "^^ 

The Later Colonial Period. 

The later colonial period may be designated as a time of 
transition. By the end of the seventeenth century it has been 
claimed that an educational declension had set in. This conten- 
tion is apparently borne out by the increased fine imposed on two 
occasions (1671, 1683) for non-compliance with the compulsory 
jaw in respect to Latin schools. 

"This declension is commonly ascribed to the wars with the 
Indians and the French that wasted the blood and the treasure 
of the colony ; the political and social contentions that disturbed 
the peace ; the uncertain relations that existed between Massachu- 
setts and the Mother Country, and internal, economic, and social 
changes. There can be no doubt, too, that the brightness of the 
early Puritan ideal had become dimmed. "-° 



16 Hinsdale: Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 
U. S., p. 8. 

17 Hinsdale: Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 
U. S., p. 45. 

18 Martin: The Evolution of the Mass. Public School System, p. 66. 

19 Colyer Meriwether: Our Colonial Curriculum, p. 17. 
20H.insda]e: Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 

U. S., p. 9. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 13 

\ 

The Origin of the District School. 

One important event that seriously affected education was 
the evohition of the district school, which naturally arose in Mas- 
sachusetts, out of the town schools established by the act of i(3-l:T. 
In the typical Xew England town, the population was concen- 
trated around the meeting house and its accompanying school. 
As population increased and became more distributed, different 
social conditions prevailed. With the disappearance of fear from 
Indian invasion, people began to push out into the wilderness. 
Many new towns had no nucleus of population, others had sev- 
eral. The one town school no longer sufficed and there appeared 
the traveling school which went to the children instead of the 
children going to the school. 

"That is, the single town school was kept a certain time in 
one corner of the town, then in another, and so on until the cir- 
cuit had been completed, the periods that it spent in the different 
localities being equal or unequal, as circumstances might deter- 
mine."-^ 

This in turn was soon superseded by several schools in the 
same town which, at first managed by the selectmen of the town, 
soon, in accordance with democratic ideals opposed to all cen- 
tralized authority, came wholly under local, that is. district con- 
trol. The district school, which thus arose without legal sanc- 
tion, was fully legalized by the act of 1789, and became the dom- 
inant school power within the state well into the last century. In 
1817, the school districts were made corporations with power to 
sue and be sued. In 1827, it attained the culmination of its 
power, limited only in the raising and apportioning of taxes and 
the qualifications of teachers. 

"This marks the culmination of a process which had been go- 
ing on steadily for more than a century. It marks the utmost 
hmit to the subdivision of American sovereignty — the high-water 
m.ark of modern democracy, and the low-water mark of the 
Massachusetts school system. "-- 

The district school system of New England was adopted by 
nearly all the western states and, to some extent, in the South, 
although here the county is the prevailing unit of school organi- 
zation. 



21 Hinsdale: Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 
U. S., p. 11. 

22 Martin: The Evolution of the Mass. Public School System, p. 92. 



14 state control of instruction 

The Decline of the Grammar School and the Rise of the 
Academy. 
The district system, while it furthered poHtically the spirit 
of democracy and equality of privileges, led also toward class 
differentiation. The growth of this system meant the decline 
of the grammar school which, in many districts because of their 
small size, it was found impossible to maintain. About the middle 
of the ]8th century, there arose the academy, which was partly 
the result of this decline and partly its cause. In the old colonial 
(lays, the need of the middle class was not generally recognized. 
The grammar schools were chiefly college preparatory institu- 
tions, that is, for the higher class, and had no organic connection 
with the elementary schools, which were for the lower classes. 
The revolutionary period and years following saw a gradual 
breaking up of these social strata and a rise into prominence of 
the middle class. It was in response to the demand of this class 
for better educational facilities than the district school afforded, 
that the academy appeared. While at the outset the academies 
were not intended as preparatory institutions, they came in time 
into close relation with the colleges, and served as such in place 
of the decayed grammar schools. 

State Systems of Education. 

While education was thus cherished since the earliest days 
of New England history, and public schools early became quite 
generally established, especially in the North, it remained for the 
19th century to produce systems of education under full public 
control. In colonial days, as has been already noted, secondary 
education received but little attention. Society was organized on 
social levels. Education was mainly for the professional and 
leading classes, with some elementary schooling, of a meagre 
fragmentary character, for the lower classes. With the growth 
of democracy and the consequent disappearance of the social 
levels of earlier days, the trend of public education has been 
toward the establishment of the principle of equality. The de- 
velopment has been to make education continuous, an educational 
ladder, leading from the lowest to the highest. Before the end 
of the first quarter of the 19th century, however, few state systems 
arose. This somewhat tardy development was not due to lack of 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 15 

foresight or want of educational ideals on the part of our early 
national leaders. They realized that the success of our experi- 
ment in popular government, as well as the prosperity and social 
progress of the people, depended upon a generous scheme of edu- 
cation, adequate to meet the needs of all. To see that the political 
leaders were fully abreast of the time in their social and political 
views and appreciated the need and worth of education, it is only 
necessary to refer to their writings. 

Thus Washington urges : 

"Promote, as an object of primary importance, institutions 
for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the 
structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is es- 
sential that public opinion shall be enlightened."-'^ 

Of similar purport are the words of John Adams : 

"The wisdom and generosity of the Legislature in making 
liberal appropriations in money for the benefit of schools, acad- 
emies and colleges, is an ecjual honor to them and their constitu- 
ents, a proof of their veneration for letters and science, and a 
portent of great and lasting good to North and South America, 
and to the world. Great is truth — great is liberty— great is hu- 
manity — and they must and will prevail."-* 

Thomas Jefferson, probably more nearly than any one else, 
expresses the modern democratic idea of education. 

'T look to the diffusion of light and education as the re- 
sources most to be relied on for ameliorating the condition, pro- 
moting the virtue, and advancing the happiness of man. And 
I do hope, in the present spirit of extending to the great mass of 
mankind the blessings of instruction, I see a prospect of great ad- 
vancement in the happiness of the human race, and this may pro- 
ceed to an indefinite, although not an infinite degree. A system 
of general instruction, which shall reach every description of our 
citizens, from the richest to the poorest, as it was the earliest, so 
it shall be the latest, of all the public concerns in which I shall 
permit myself to take an interest. Give it to us, in any shape, and 
receive for the inestimable boon the thanks of the young, and the 
blessings of the old, who are past all other services but prayers 
for the prosperity of their country, and blessings to those who 
promote it."-'" 

In a similar vein James Madison writes : 

"Learned institutions ought to be the favorite objects with 
ever}- free people ; they throw light over the public mind, which 



-'3 Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. 15, 1S65, p. 12. 

24 Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. 15, 1S65, p. 12. 

25 Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. 15, 1865, p. 12. 



16 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

is the best security against crafty and dangerous encroachments 
on the pubHc liberty. They multiply the educated individuals, 
from among whom the people may elect a due portion of their 
public agents of every description, more especially of those who 
are to frame the laws : by the perspicuity, the consistency, and 
the stability, as well as by the justice and equal spirit of which, 
the great social purposes are to be answered."-'^ 

Likewise John Ouincy Adams : 

"Moral, political, and intellectual improvements, are duties 
assigned by the author of our existence to social, no less than to 
individual man. For the fulfilment of these duties, governments 
are invested with power, and to the attainment of these ends, the 
exercise of this power is a duty sacred and indispensable.""-' 

Causes of Centralization. 

The conception common to all these statesmen and leaders 
is that education is necessary for citizenship. These views, how- 
ever, were not general. It had to become evident that the demo- 
cratic theory of local school control was inconsistent with educa- 
tional progress, and that some general directing authority was 
necessary for reasonable efficiency. The educational advance, 
n.ioreover, is intimately connected with the social and economic 
development of the country. During the last few decades, great 
changes have taken place. With the rapid growth of popula- 
tion and the increase of wealth, primitive conditions have given 
way to modern complexities, and public education has grown 
more and more important and become a question of general as 
well as local concern. Various forces have contributed to this 
development. The period following the transition from colonial 
dependence to national independence was one of great activity, 
one of great changes and growth. Through the development and 
growth of urban population, the simple colonial life was rapidly 
superseded by modern conditions. In the pioneer days, educa- 
tion was necessarily much neglected, but with better conditions 
it became less a battle for mere existence, and education of the 
masses received more attention. The educational provisions of 
the earlier days no longer sufficed. It was recognized that intel- 
ligence was needed for industrial, social, and political life. Like- 
ness of interest in industrial and social life called for similarity 



2G Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. 15, 1865, p. 12. 
27 Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. 15, 1865, p. 12. 



HISTORICAL SKETCH 17 

of culture and training. The extension of the suffrage empha- 
sized still more the demand for better schools. The enlargement 
of educational interest was accompanied by tendencies toward 
centralization. The first step in this centering of educational con- 
trol was the creating' of state school funds. The granting of aid 
on the part of the state implied the fulfillment of certain condi- 
tions on the part of the locality, such as the maintenance of school 
for a stated period, instruction in specified subjects, emplo3aTient 
of qualified teachers, raising of local taxes, and the like. Thus 
state school funds became the basis of distinctive state policies and 
inaugurated a system of state control in education. 

I:!VIDENCES OF CENTRALIZATION. 

While the earlier educational elTorts seem t'o have been to 
make the district system more effective, the later tendency has 
been to merge it into the larger township organization. The 
district system has doubtless been a necessary step in the evolu- 
tion of school organization, and the means of bringing the school 
within the reach of all. It had, however, many inherent evils 
among which may be mentioned the inequality of taxation and ■ 
school privileges of different districts, discontinuity of studies 
and school policies, lack of eff,ective grading and supervision, and 
its expensiveness and narrow provincialism. In 1837, Horace 
-Mann said of the Massachusetts schools: 

"In this commonwealth, there are about three thousand 
Public Schools, in all of which the rudiments of knowledge are 
taught. These schools, at the present time, are so many distinct, 
independent communities, each being governed by its own habits, 
traditions, and local customs. There is no common superintend- 
ing power over them ; there is no bond of brotherhood or familv 
between them. They are strangers and aliens to each other.'"-^ 

With the migration of population, moreover, conditions so 
changed, many districts became so impoverished and depopulated 
as to greatly limit the usefulness of this system. In some form 
cr other it still exists in many of the states. In ]\Iaine, New 
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Indiana, 
the township system has entirely superseded it, while in others, 
as Rhode Island, Connecticut, Wisconsin, Alinnesota, Illinois, 



I'S Horace Mann: Lectures and Annual Reports on Education, p. 47. 



18 STATE CONTROL OP INSTRUCTION 

Xorth and South Dakota, and the upper peninsula of Michigan, 
both are found. Massachusetts was the first to aboblsh it in 1882. 

The very constitutions indicate the change that has taken 
place in the administration of education. The early constitutions 
made no reference to education, not because their framers were 
illiterate or had no interest in education, but because it was held 
to be a matter for local and private concern. Today, every state 
and territory, in a greater or less degree, exercises control over 
the various schools within its borders. The constitutions of 
nearly all the states provide for a system of free schools.-^ 

Current legislation and court decisions are strongly toward 
centralization. Hardly a legislative session passes which does not 
enact some law affecting the educational interests of the state. 
There is a marked difference between the colonial district school, 
which was practically a law unto itself, and the modern state- 
controlled school. Judicial decisions have fully established that 
schools are not local, controlled by separate communities, but parts 
of a state system, subject to and controlled by state authority. 
Dift'erent states exercise this authority in different degrees. The 
construction and equipment of school buildings, the examination 
and certfication of teachers, the selection and furnishing of text- 
books, the framing and enforcing of courses of study, the inspec- 
tion and supervision of instruction, the attendance of pupils, 
medical inspection of schools, whatsoever through the agency of 
the school affects the weal or woe of the child, and through it the 
welfare of the state, has become, to a greater or less extent, sub- 
ject to state control. 



29 Ala. 256; Ariz. 11, 6; Ark. 14, 1; Cal. 9, 5; Col. 9, 2; Del. 10, 1; Fla. 
12, 1; Ga. 8, 1, 1; Ida, 9, 1; 111. 8, 1; Ind. 8, 1; la. 9, 1, 12; Kan. 6, 2; 
Ky. 1S3; La. 248; Md. 8, 1; Me. 8, 1; Mich. 13, 4; Minn. 8, 3; Miss. 201; Mo. 
11. 1: Mon. 11, 1; Ord., N. C. 9, 2; N. D. 147; Neb. 8, 6; Nev. 11, 2; N. J. 

4, 7, 6; N. Y. 9, 1; O. 6, 2; Okla. 13, 1; Qire. 8, 3; Pa. 10, 1; S. C. 11. 5; 

5. D. 8, 1; 22, 1; Tex. 7, 1; Utah 3, 4; 10, 1; Va. 129; Vt. 2, 41; Wash. 9, 1; 
26, 1; 27, 1; W. Va. 12, 1; Wis. 10, 3; W'y. 7, 1; Ord. (Irrevocable without 
the consent of the U. S. ; Wy., Wash., Utah, N. D., S. D., Mon.) — Stimson: 
Federal and State Constitutions of the U. S., p. 141. 

(The numbers refer, in the order given, to chapter, section and 
clause of the constitutions of the states named.) 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 19 



CHAPTER II. 
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 
The Need of Education. 

Whatever may be the view held as to the end of education, 
its necessity is admitted on every hand. The child enters this 
world as an immature, helpless being, and requires years of care 
and training to attain development. Even with the earliest man, 
education of some sort was necessary. The child, during the 
I)eriod of immaturity, had to become adapted to his primitive en- 
vironment or fail to survive in the struggle for existence. In this 
primitive society, education was unorganized. Such adaptations 
as conditions demanded were effected by the child through direct 
imitation of his elders. In the course of time, however, through 
years of development, man has attained to stages of civilization 
and accumulated an ever-growing fund of knowledge, calling 
for special agencies for its transmission. With the change of en- 
vironment, the change of social and political conditions, the ever- 
increasing stock of human experience, the change in the concep- 
tion of the possibility and nature of human development, the 
change of the view of the purpose of life and human existence, 
the importance of the period of infancy has become more signi- 
ficant, and the function of the school better understood. Today, 
its possible socializing influence is discerned better than ever be- 
fore, and no aim of education can meet the demands of the pres- 
ent that does not recognize the needs of society. In this country, 
it is to the public school that is entrusted, in large measure, the 
obligation to safeguard the welfare of the social body individ- 
ually, as well as collectively. 

The Necessity for .State Control. 

That the public school may perform its proper function, the 
state has more and more assumed control over its administration 
and prescribed rules and regulations calculated to further the in- 
terests of the individual, as well as those of the state. The right 



20 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

of the state to this control springs from its very nature^ as an or- 
ganized unity for the maintenance of the welfare of society and 
the highest well-being of its members.- The state exists for the 
better obtaining: of the true ends of human existence. It is for 



1 "The state is founded on those rights which are essential to all 
members and which can be enforced. ... On the other hand, the 
state stands incalculably above the individual, is worthy of every sac- 
rifice, of life and goods, of wife and children, for it is the society of 
societies, the sacred union by which the creator leads man to civilization; 
the bond, the pacifier, the humanizer of men, the protector of all under- 
takings in which and through which the individual has received its 
character, and which is the staff and shield of society." — Lieber: 
Political Ethics, pp. 151, 160. 

2 "The office of government will be simple or complex or difficult, 
very much according to the character of the people to whom it is 
applied, and the possibility of advanced governmental systems will de- 
pend on the same conditions. It is, then, a wise policy on the part 
of the state to simplify its task by elevating the mental and moral condi- 
tions of the people by judicious education. This is a measure of public 
safety which reduces the tendency to crime and qualifies people for a 
higher degree of citizenship. This policy seems so evidently wise to 
constitute it one of the primal state duties. . . . An undoubted 
function of the state is the case of the moral and physical welfare of 
its people. The moral welfare is effected by education. The chief effort 
of humanity in all ages and in all forms of civilization is to know. 
The effort of knowledge is an uphill struggle, and it is remarkable that 
the knowledge which is essential to progress and welfare of the human 
race is acquired by the slowest degrees and by the continuous labor of 
many generations. In the meantime, misery, suffering, loss of life, are 
the penalties of ignorance. Tear after year, generation after generation, 
century after century, are witnessed diseases Tvhich torture humanity 
and abridge life, until the means are discovered whereby the evil may 
be abated.. In a similar way the act of protecting against the effects 
of natural powers is learned, and only partly learned by years of effort. 
The constant struggle after knowledge to guard or to improve hvimanity 
is constantly going on with infinitely slow results. This picture, drawn 
on a grand scale, is reproduced in all the smaller affairs of life. As 
knowledge advances, so do conditions improve and equally are problems 
of life simplified. "With the advance of knowledge, the people of a state 
find 1heir moral and material justice improved and the difficulties of 
government are lessened. It has been the fashion at times to deny the 
advantages of knowledge as spread among a people. To do this is to 
deny all the teachings of history, to misjudge the forces which have 
been acting for the advance of mankind. 

"With these truths thus set forth, it appears that it is a state 
function to further or to compel, as far as the needs of the case demand, 
the education of the people. The advantages of education appear in 
many ways; in the economic sense, in the greatest utility of labor by 
the application of superior intelligence; in a moral sense, in the cultiva- 
tion of good habits; in a political sense, in a more intelligent com- 
prehension of political duties. The degree of intelligence furthered by 
education is politically valued directly as the popular participation in 
politic-ill duties. Granting these truths, it is a state duty to further and 
possibly to compel popular education." — ^W^ood: Government and the 
State, pp. 115, 215, 216. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 21 

the interests of all that the individual must become socially ef- 
ficient. ^ All human endeavor has for its ultimate end the attain- 
ment of happiness ; social progress, however, the direct means to 
this end, is dependent upon general intelligence,* and hence edu- 
cation becomes a most im.portant social function. It is important 
politically as well as economically. Some education generally 
diffused is essential to the very life'' of a state competent to se- 
cure the ends for which it exists. In the United States especially, 
because of the extent of suffrage, the only safety of the nation 
as well as of the commonwealths rests in the universality, the 
vigor, and the soundness of education. In a republic, the will of 
the people should be supreme, and if ignorance and vice rather 
than virtue and intelligence are in control, the welfare of the state 
as well as of the individual is menaced. Self-preservation is the 
first law of governmental as well as of human existence. The 
danger from ignorance and vice not only affects the safety of the 
state from within, but from without. The state must educate 
as a means of military defence. Knowledge and science, rather 
than mere numbers and physical strength, are the deciding fac- 
tors in military contests today. 

However, the great battle of the future will not be one of 
arms, but of intelHgencee and mental and moral strength, fought 
on the fields of industry and invention and trade. The commer- 
cial and industrial progress of the leading nations of the world 
in recent years has a very vital relation to their educational ad- 
vance. Education is an indispensable means of industrial prog- 



3 "No theory of the state can be complete which does not make its 
aim .sufficiently wide to include the perfect development of all its 
citizens in the highest, noblest and fullest form of social, political and 
industrial life. ... Its end is only reached with the perfecting- 
of every individual's capacities, and this implies the perfecting of its 
own. The end, then, we are in search of must be a very wide one. It 
is nothing short of the highest welfare of the individual and of 
humanity." — ^McKechnie: The State and the Individual, p. 74. 

4 "Ward: Dynamic Sociology, p. 108. 

5 "It is admitted by all that the state should possess powers suffi- 
ciently extensive for the maintenance of its own continued existence 
against foreign interference, to provide the means whereby its national 
life may be preserved and developed, and to maintain internal order, 
including the protection of life, liberty and property. These have been 
designated the essential functions of the state, and are such as must 
be possessed by a state, whatever its form." — ^Willoughby: The Nature 
of the State, p. 310. 



22 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

ress. It promotes industry, makes labor skillfuP ind move pro- 
ductive/ enriches industry through discoveries and inventions.^ 
and improves the conditions of laborers intellectually, physically, 
morally and socially.'* 

To provide this education that will answer the needs of the 
state, as well as of the individual, some general authority is neces- 
sary.^° Unless the state assumes this function, there is no as- 

6 "The laborer's general intelligence determines his intellectual 
qualiflcations for his work, his abilitj^ to direct his bodily powers, such 
as they are, to the production of wealth, with the maximum of effect 
and the minimum of waste." — 'Walker: Political Economy, p. 54. 

7 "There is no extravagence more prejudicial to the growth of 
national wealth than that wasteful negligence which allows genius that 
happens to be born of lowly parentage to expend itself in lowly work." — 
Marshall: Principles of Economics, p. 213. 

s "We may then conclude that the wisdom of expending public and 
private funds on education is not to be measured by its direct fruits 
alone. It will be profitable as a mere investment, to give the masses 
of the people much greater opportunities than they can generally avail 
themselves of. For by this means, who would have died unknown, are 
enabled to get the start needed for bringing out their latent abilities. 
And the economic value of one great industrial genius is sufficient to 
cover the expenses of education of a whole town; for one new idea, such 
as Bessemer's chief invention, adds as much to England's productive 
power as the labor of a hundred thousand men. . . . All that is 
spent during many years in opening the means of higher education to 
the masses would be well paid for if it called out one more Newton, or 
Darwin, or Shakespeare, or Beethoven." — Marshall: Principles of Eco- 
nomics, pp. 216, 217. 

9 "A good education confers great indirect benefits, even on the 
ordinary workman. It stimulates his mental activity; it fosters in time 
a habit of wise inquisitiveness; it makes him more intelligent, more 
ready, more trustworthj'-, in his ordinary work; it raises the tone of his 
life in working hours and out of working hours; it is an important 
means toward the production of material wealth; at the same time, that, 
regarded as an end in itself, it is inferior to none of those which the 
production of material wealth can be made to subserve." — Marshall: 
Principles of Economics, p. 212. 

10 "Education is the proper office of the state for two reasons, both 
of which come within the principles we have been discussing. Popular 
education is necessary for the preservation of those conditions of free- 
dom, political and social, which are indispensable to free individual 
development. And, in the second place, no instrumentality less imiversal 
in its power and authority than government can secure popular educa- 
tion. In brief, in order to secure popular education, the action of 
society as a whole is necessary; and popular education is indispensable 
to that equalization of the conditions of personal development which we 
have taken to be a proper object of society. Without popular educa- 
tion, moreover, no government which rests upon popular action can long 
endure; the people must be schooled in the knowledge, and if possible 
in the virtue, upon which the maintenance and success of free institu- 
tions depend. No free governmnt can last in health if it lose hold of 
the traditions of its- history, and in the public schools these traditions 
may be and should be sedulously preserved, carefully replanted in the 
thought and consciousnes.s of each successive generation." — Wilson- 
The State, pp. 63S-639. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 23 

surance that education will be universal, that good citizenship 
will be promoted, that patriotism and love of country will be fos- 
tered ; in brief, that the best interests of the state and the individ- 
ual will be subserved. The state, moreover, has the right of tax- 
ation, and the authority which exercises this right is in duty 
bound to see to it that the purposes for which taxes are laid are 
realized. Education conducted without state permission, direc- 
tion or control, may be entirely opposed to the best interests of 
the state and, indeed, subversive of its organization and destruc- 
tive to its own integrity. 

State control of education has been opposed on grounds of 
individualism" and socialism, and it has been said that that 
government is best which governs the least. It might better be 
said that that people is the happiest and strongest who because of 
their intelligence and moral integrity need the supervision and re- 
straint of government the least. The voluntary plan of educa- 
tion would not promote the requisite culture of all. The indiffer- 
ence in matters educational on the part of many is a fact of com- 
mon observation, as the enactments of compulsory attendance 
laws throughout the civilized world attest. How difficult it is 
to make education universal, in spite of such legislation, is shown 
by the prevalence of illiteracy. According to the census of 1900, 
the total number of illiterates, of persons ten years or more of 
age, in the United States amounted to 6,246,857." 

The Meaning of State Control. 

The national government of the United States — while it has 
aided generously in education, both elementary and higher, and 
has been increasingly active in the diffusion of knowledge among 
the people — has left the direction and control of public instruc- 
tion to the different commonwealths. State control, therefore, 

11 "For if the benefit, importance, or necessity of education be as- 
signed as a sufficient reason why g-overnment should educate, then may 
the benefit, importance, or necessity of food, clothing-, shelter and 
warmth be assigned asi a sufficient reason why government should ad- 
minster these also. So that the alleged right can not be established 
without annulling all parental responsibility whatever." — Spencer: Social 
Statistics, p. 362. 

"Knowledge has to be won at the cost of self-denial, being the 
best inheritance a mail can bequeath to his; children as the fruit of the 
exertions of a lifetime." — ^Mackay: A Plea for Liberty, p. 272. 

12 U. S. 1900 Census Reports, vol. II, p. xcvii. 



24 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

has reference not to the federal state, but to the various members 
composing it. 

Elementary Education of First Consideration. 

From the standpoint of social welfare, the universality^^ of 
education is more important than its amount, and hence it is not 
surprising- that the elementary schools, which at least should be 
provided for all. are of first concern in point of state control. 

The Curriculum as a Controlling Factor. 

In the control thus exercised, that pertaining to the curricu- 
lum is of foremost importance. The course of study, while but 
one element, is the chief instrument for developing and carrying- 
forward the educative process. The curriculum represents, or 
should represent, racial experience and achievements that have 
proved of value. It is the most important means which the 
school possesses for furthering the adjustment of the individual 
to his environment. 

Constitutional Provisions. 

Constitutional provisions for such control are quite limited. 
Though nearly all states have incorporated educational measures 



13 "The third, cardinal principle whicli inheres in our definition of 
education is that it must be universaL The knowledge which society 
requires to be extended to one it must require to be extended to all. 
Otherwise, the true end in view is not attained. . . . We have now 
to recognize the important fact that the value of education increases' in 
an accelerated ratio as the number of uneducated diminishes. Just as 
the sheplierd rejoices more over the one sheep that was' lost and is 
found than over the ninety-nine that went not astray, so society, when 
it fairly realizes its interests will care more for the education of a mere 
handful hitherto neglected than for the mass already provided for. 
Just as povertj^ in the midst of wealth aggravates its evils, so 
Ignorance in the midst of intelligence is intensified by the contrast. A 
generallj' low state of intelligence is comparatively harmless, since 
there is a normal degree of correspondence among all the parts of the 
social fabric. But a stolid and vicious class in the midst of science, 
learning, and culture, lilce a 'bull in a china-shop,' presents such a com- 
plete state of inharmony and unfitness that the effect is out of propor- 
tion to the cause. Civilization, like all organized progress, has only 
been achieved at vast expense to the social energies. Its constitution 
is necessarily delicate in proportion as it is refined. Its differentiation 
has gone so far, and its integration is on so extensive and exact a scale, 
that it will not stand to be rent in pieces by internal discords. Every 
assault of savagery upon so complicated and expensive an organization 
costs society an immense sacrifice, and is felt in all parts of the social 
system. It cannot afford to nurse a viper daily threatening its life." 
— ^Ward: Dynamic Sociology, pp. 593, 595. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 25 

into their constitutions, to a greater or less extent, but little di- 
rect reference is made to school curricula. This is confined to 
the language^* rec^uirements and the teaching of the metric 
system, in Utah,^"" and the elements of agriculture, horticulture, 
stock-feeding, and domestic science, in Oklahoma.^'' 

Means of Control of Curricula. 

It is in their statutes that the control of education on the 
part of the states is made manifest. Not only directly, but in- 
directly, through the examination of teachers,^^ the examination 
of pupils^^ for admission to secondary schools, and special sub- 
sidies,^^ this authority exerts a directing influence on the course 
of study of elementary schools. 

Statute Requirements. 

In their direct control, the different states present a varying 
practice, both as to extent and quality.-" This function, however, 
is generally exercised by the state, rather than local authorities. 
Out of the forty-eight states and the territory of Hawaii, only 
eight, Arkansas (in cities and towns), Idaho (in independent 
school districts), Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, New Hampshire, 
New York, Rhode Island, also Oregon (in districts of the first 
class), vest this authority in the local school boards exclusively. 
Ill Nebraska, the course of study is established by the school 
boards of the county, by the consent and advice of the county su- 
perintendent. New Jersey makes it the duty of the board of edu- 
cation of the district, in connection with the count)'- superintend- 
ent. In thirty states, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, 
Georgia. Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mary- 
land, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Montana, New A'lexico, North 
Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South 
Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, 
Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming, the law 
designates specifically the branches of study. Arkansas and 
Maine require the state superintendent to determine the subjects 



14 See chapter IV. 

15 Utah, art. 10, sec. 11. 

16 Oklahoma, art. 1, sec. 8. 

17 See chapter III, p. 52. 

18 See p. 35. 

19 See p. 35. 

20 See appendix. 



26 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

to be taught ; Arizona, Delaware, Idaho, Nevada, and Oregon, 
the state board of education ; Hawaii leaves it to the department 
of public instruction ; in Missouri and Utah, in county districts 
of the first class, it is the duty of the county superintendent; and 
in Alabama, of the county board. Local autonomy, however, is 
not complete, even in the eight states before mentioned, inasmuch 
as physiology and hygiene, including the effects of alcoholic 
drinks and narcotics, must be included in the branches of study 
according to law, in all the states of the union, except Oklahoma, 
and, by the federal enactment-^ in 1886, in the territories, besides 
one or two other subjects. Of the thirty states in which the law 
designates the branches of study, all require reading, grammar, 
arithmetic, geography, orthography, and physiolog}^, and all ex- 
cept Oklahoma include United States history and, with the ex- 
ception of Alississippi, writing. Florida, Georgia, Illinois. Kan- 
sas, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, Alontana, North Carolina, 
Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, 
Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming, re- 
quire state history ; Alabama, Colorado, Georgia, Maryland, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Wisconsin, 
United States constitution; Alabama, Colorado, Delaware, Flor- 
ida, Georgia, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Wisconsin and Wyoming, state con- 
stitution ; California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Ill- 
inois, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, Montana, North Dakota, 
Ohio. Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, West A^irgina, 
civil government; Colorado, school law of the state; Alississippi, 
Montana, Texas. Washington, mental arithmetic ; South Carolina, 
algebra and plane geometry; California, Tennessee, West Vir- 
ginia, bookkeeping; New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, lang- 
guage lessons; California, Kentucky. North Carolina, Texas, 
English Composition; South Carolina, English literature; Wis- 
consin, orthoepy; California, Florida, Iowa, Alaryland, :Massa- 
chusetts,* Oklahoma, Pennsylvania,* domestic science ; California, 
Florida, Illinois,=^ Louisiana, Alaine, Alaryland, Alassachusetts, 
North Carolina, Pennsylvania,* Vermont, and Virginia, drawino"; 
California, Colorado, Illinois,* North Dakota, Tennessee, \"ir- 

23 See chapter V. 
*Law not mandatory. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ' 27 

ginia,* and Wyoming^, nature study ; Alabama, Arkansas. Cali- 
fornia, Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachu- 
setts,* Minnesota,** Mississippi, North Carolina, North Dakota, 
Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania,* South Carolina, Tennessee, 
Texas, Virginia,* West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming, ele- 
ments of agriculture ; Oklahoma, horticulture, stock feeding and 
animal husbandry : California, Florida, Iowa, Maryland, Massa- 
chusetts,* Ohio,* Tennessee,* Virginia* and Vermont,* manual 
training; Utah, the metric system; Arkansas, the method of de- 
signating and reading land survey by ranges, townships and sec- 
tions ; Colorado, theory and practice of teaching ; Maine and 
Oklahoma, forestry ; Indiana, Massachusetts, North Carolina, 
Pennsylvania, special instruction in tuberculosis and its preven- 
tion; Michigan, ]\Iontana and Utah, methods of prevention and 
restriction of dangerous communicable diseases ; Indiana, the dis- 
semination of diseases by rats, flies and mosquitoes and the ef- 
fects thereof, and the pervention of diseases by the proper selec- 
tion and consumption of food.-- 

State Courses of Study. • 

Not only the branches of study, but the courses as well, have 
been made a matter of state control. Twenty-one of the states 
liave made legal provision for this purpose. Arkansas. Iowa, 
Michigan, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, A'er- 
rnont and Wisconsin make it the duty of the state superintend- 
ent to prepare such a course ; Arizona, Georgia, Idaho. Kansas, 
Kentucky, Mississippi, Nevada, Oregon, South Carolina, Wash- 
ington and West Virginia, of the state board of education ; Utah, 
of the state school committee, consisting of the state superinten- 
dent, principal of the state normal school, principal of the state 
normal training school, and two county school superintendents to 
be appointed by the state board of education. These courses, 
however, do not have to be adopted necessarily in the schools. 
In Wisconsin, e. g., the state superintendent prepares such a 
course, but the district board decides what shall be the curriculum 
of its school. Oregon prescribes a state course only for second 



*T^aw not mandatory. 
**State aid for such instruction. 
22 See chapter V. 



28 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

and third-class districts, and Utah for the schools of the state 
not included in county school districts of the first class and in 
cities of the first and second class. 

Extent of Centralized Control, 

While in some states the statutes merely indicate the minimum 
requirements, in others the provision is extensive. The law of 
]Massachusettts requires : 

"Every city and town shall maintain, for at least thirty -two 
weeks in each year, a sufficient number of schools for the instruc- 
tion of all the children who may legally attend a public school 
therein, except that in towns whose assessed valuation is less 
than two-hundred thousand dollars, the required period may, 
with the consent of the board of education, be reduced to twenty- 
eight weeks. Such schools shall be taught b}^ teachers of com- 
petent ability and good morals, and shall give instruction in or- 
thography, reading, writing, the English language, and grammar, 
geography, arithmetic, drawing, the history of the United States, 
physiology and hygiene, and good behavior. In each of the siib- 
jects of physiology and hygiene, special instruction as to the ef- 
fects of alcoholic drinks and of stimulants and narcotics on the 
human system, and as to tuberculosis and its prevention, shall be 
taught as a regular branch of study to all pupils in all schools 
which are supported wholly or partly by public money, except 
schools which are maintained solely for instruction in particular 
branches. Bookkeeping, algebra, geometry, one or more foreign 
languages, the elements of the natural sciences, kindergarten 
training, manual training, agriculture, sewing, cooking, vocal 
music, physical training, civil government, ethics, thrift, and such 
other subjects as the school committee consider expedient, may 
be taught in the public schools."-^ 

Maryland is another example of a state making extensive 
provisions : 

"In every district school there shall be taught orthography, 
reading, writing, subjects for language training, English gram- 
mar, geography, arithmetic, history of the United States, good 
behavior, the constitution of the United States, constitution and 
history of Alaryland, vocal music, drawing, physiology, the laws 
of health and domestic economy, civil government; and the ele- 
ments of agricultural science may in the discretion of the State 
board of education, be added to the branches required to be 
taught in the State normal school and in the public schools of the 
various counties of the State."-* 



•-'3 Massachusetts, L,. '10, chap. 524. 
24 Maryland, L. '04, chap. 584. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 29 

The district public schools of Tennessee are divided into two 
classes, primary and secondary, the former consisting" of five 
grades and the latter of eight, the first five of each being the 
same. 

'Tn every primary school shall be taught orthography, read- 
ing, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, history of Ten- 
nessee, containing the constitution of Tennessee, and the history 
of the United States, containing the constitution of the United 
States. Vocal music and elocution, or the art of public speak- 
ing, may be taught therein, and no other branches shall be intro- 
duced, except those added in (4) below (i. e. physiology and 
hygiene, with special reference to the nature of alcoholic drinks 
and narcotics). In every secondary school shall be taught the 
following branches : orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, 
grammar geography, history of Tennessee, containing the con- 
stitution of Tennessee, history of the United States, containing 
the constitution of the United States, elementar}^ geology of Ten- 
nessee, elementary principles of agriculture, elements of algebra, 
elements of plane geometry, elements of natural philosophy, book- 
keeping, elementary physiology and hygiene, elements of civil 
government, and rhetoric or higher English. Practice shall be 
given in elocution, or the art of public speaking. Vocal music 
may be taught, and no other branches shall be introduced, except 
those included in (4) following" (as above). "^ 

In California, the law not merely prescribes the studies, but 
directs their administration to some extent. 

"AH schools must be taught in the English language. In- 
struction must be given in the following branches, in the several 
grades in which they may be required, viz. : reading, writing, or- 
thography, arithmetic, geography, nature study, with special 
reference to agriculture ; language and grammar, with special 
reference to composition ; history of the United States and civil 
government ; physical culture, including the necessary elements 
of physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the injurious 
effects of tobacco, alcohol and narcotics on the human system ; 
morals and manners ; music, drawing, and elementary bookkeep- 
ing, humane education, and when competent teachers thereof can 
be secured and there are suf^cient funds in the district to pay their 
salaries, manual training and domestic science; provided, that in- 
struction in elementary bookkeeping, humane education, elements 
of physiolog}^ and hygiene, music, drawing, and nature study 
may be oral, and no text-books on these subjects shall be re- 
quired ; provided further, that County Boards of Education ma3^ 



Tennessee, Public School Laws, 1911, p. 25, sec. 32. 



30 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

in districts having less than one hundred census children, confine 
the pupils to the studies of reading, writing, orthography, arith- 
metic, language and grammar, geography, history of the United 
States and civil government, elements of physiology and hygiene, 
and elementary bookkeeping, until they have a practical knowl- 
edge of these subjects: and it is further provided, that no more 
■ than twenty recitations per week shall be required of pupils in 
the secondary schools, and no pupils under the age of fifteen 
years in an}- elementary school shall be required to do any home 
study. Other studies may be authorized by the Board of Educa- 
tion of any county, city, or city and county, but such studies if so 
authorized shall be in lieu of a corresponding number of such 
enumerated studies specified in the preceding section and not in 
addition thereto. Instruction must be given in all grades of 
school and in all classes during the entire school course, in man- 
ners, in morals and upon the nature of alcoholic drinks and nar- 
cotics and their effects upon the human system. Attention must 
be given to such physical exercises for the pupils as may be con- 
ducive to health and vigor of body, as well as mind, and to the 
ventilation and temperature of schoolrooms."-'' 

Exceptional Requirements. 

All the states, except those in which local autonomy pre- 
vails,-' make such provision as will at least provide for 
the elements of a common school education. Aside from the sub- 
jects common to all the curricula, some of the branches evidently 
reflect state demands in special lines or more or less individual in- 
terests made public in legislation. Such, undoubtedly, is the re- 
c[uirement as to school law in Colorado ; algebra and English liter- 
ature, in South Carolina ; orthoepy, in Wisconsin ; theory and 
practice of teaching, in Colorado. A special noteworthy example 
is Oklahoma, which requires the elements of agriculture, horticul- 
ture, stock feeding and domestic science, by constitutional pro- 
vision. This becomes peculiarly significant, when it is considered 
how difficult it usually is to amend state constitutions. 

Enrichment and Elimination. 

An examination of the various curricula leads to the con- 
clusion that the discussion of enrichment of courses of study has 
produced its effect in legislation, at least in some states. Though 
true enrichment is doubtless desirable, the multiplicity of subjects 



26 California, L. '13, chap. Ill, sec. 1664-166S. 

27 See p. 25. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 31 

may well raise the question of elimination. This need not mean 
the omission of subjects of study, but rather the elimination of 
all subject matter in any branch which is of no real value to the 
child. This vitalization of the course of study is not so much a 
work for the legislator as for the teaching profession, for the 
leaders in educational thought and practice. 

Authority of School Boards Over Courses of Study. 

In seventeen states, the law grants authority to some state 
or local official to add branches not specified. Various legal de- 
cisions in these states, as well as in others where this power is not 
specifically stated, have affirmed this authority of school boards. 

In the case of McCormick v. Cora Burt, in 1883, brought by 
the former against the latter and the school board to recover 
damages for his suspension from school on account of the non- 
observance of a rule of the school^ it was held : 

"In the performance of the duties imposed by law upon 
school directors, they must exercise judgment and discretion. 
What rules and regulations will best promote the interests of the 
school under their immediate control, and what branches shall be 
taught, and what text-books shall be used, are matters left to the 
determination of the directors, and must be settled by them from 
the best light they can obtain from any source, keeping always in 
view the highest good of the whole school."-^ 

In Laporte, Ind., one Aram Andrew was suspended from 
school for refusing to study music. The case came into the 
courts, and finally reached the supreme court which, in its decis- 
ion affirmed : 

"It cannot be doubted, we think, that the Legislature has 
given the trustees of the public school corporations the discre- 
tionary power to direct, from time to time, what branches of 
learning, in addition to those specified in the statute, shall be 
taught in the public schools of their respective corporations. 
Where such trustees may have established a system of graded 
schools, or such modifications of them as may be practicable, with 
their respective corporations, they are clothed by law with the 
discretionary power to prescribe the course of instruction in the 
dift'erent grades of their public schools. We are of the opinion 
that the rule or regulation of which the relator complains, in the 
case under consideration, was within the discretionary power con- 
ferred by law upon the governing authorities of the school city 



28 McCormick v. Cora Burt, 95 JU. 263. 



32 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

of Laporte, that it was not an unreasonable rule, but that it was 
such a one as each pupil of the high school, in the absence of suf- 
ficient excuse, might lawfully be required to obey and comply 
with."-« 

In 1876, there was tried, in the supreme court of Iowa, the 
case of Bellemeyer v. The Independent District of Marshalltown, 
involving the question as to the right of the district board to bind 
the district by a contract for the purchase of a musical instru- 
ment. After reciting the laws pertaining "to the qualifications of 
teachers and to the right of the annual school meeting to deter- 
mine "what additional branches shall be taught in the schools of 
the district," the court affirmed: 

"We are of opinion that under these provisions of the statute, 
tiie independent district, defendant, had the power to determine 
that music should be taught in the schools as a branch of educa- 
tion."=° 

The school board of Defiance, Ohio, in 1876, adopted a rule 
providing for the suspension from school of any pupil refusing 
to study rhetoric, unless excused on account of sickness, or other 
good cause. A boy named Andrew Sewell refused to comply 
with this rule and was suspended. The boy's father brought suit 
against the board. The court in its decision affirmed : 

"The act under which the common schools of Defiance were 
organized gives to the board of education of the town the entire 
control and management thereof ; authorizes the board to make 
and enforce all necessary rules and reg-ulations for the govern- 
ment of teachers and pupils therein, and to determine the various 
studies and parts of study in which instruction shall he given in 
the several departments thereof. The act does not direct how, 
or in what manner, the rules and regulations which the board 
may adopt for the government of the schools under its care and 
management shall be enforced, but leaves the whole subject of the_^ 
making of such rules and their enforcement to the judgment an(? 
sound discretion of the board. The rule in question, for the en- 
forcement of which, in the manner stated, damages are claimed 
by the plaintifif in this action, was, in our opinion, reasonable."^^ 

In one of the district schools of Vermont, in 1859, a boy 
named Guernsey refused to write English composition required 
by the teacher, but not mentioned in the list of studies prescribed 



29 The State, ex. rel. Andrew, v. Webber, 108 Ind. 31. 

soBeUmeyer v. The Independent Dist. of Marshalltown, 44 Iowa 564. 

31 SeweU V. Board of Education, 29 Ohio State 89. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 33 

by law. The boy was suspended and the case came before the 
courts. In the ruHng of the supreme court is found the follow- 
ing : 

"But in regard of those branches which are recjuired to be 
taught in the public schools, the prudential committee and the 
teacher must, of necessity, have some discretion as to the order 
of teaching them, the pupils who shall be allowed to pursue them, 
and the mode in which they shall be taught. If this were not so, 
it Avould be impossible to classify the pupils, or for one teacher 
to attend to more than ten or twelve pupils. With this conces- 
sion to the teacher of fixing the mode of teaching these branches,, 
it seems very obvious that English composition may fairly be re- 
garded as an allowable mode of teaching many of these 
branches.'""'- 

There was a case tried in the courts of Nebraska, in 1891, in- 
stituted because of the expulsion from school of a girl for her re- 
fusal to study grammar. The court held : 

"Schools are provided by the public in which prescribed 
branches are taught wdiich are free to all within the district be- 
tween certain ages. But no pupil attending the school can be 
compelled to study any prescribed branch against the protest of 
the parent that the child shall not study such branch, and any 
rule or regulation that requires the pupil to continue such studies 
is arbitrary and unreasonable. There is no reason whv the fail- 
ure of one or more pupils to study one or more prescribed 
branches should result disastrously to the proper discipline, ef- 
ficiency, and well being of the school.""^ 

In 1875, one Frances Post attended a district school in Illi- 
nois, and belonged to a class which required the study of book- 
keeping. Because of her refusal to pursue this stud}" she was ex- 
pelled from school. An action of trespass was instituted against 
the principal and directors of the school, and the case iinally 
reached the supreme court which, in giving its opinion, said : . 

"The state has provided the means and brought them within 
the reach of all, to acquire the benefits of a common school educa- 
tion, but leaves it to parents and guardians to determine the ex- 
tent to which they will render it available to the children under 
their charge. We are, therefore, clearly of opinion that the gen- 
eral assembly has invested school directors with the power to 
compel the teaching of other and higher branches than those 
enumerated, to those willing to receive instruction therein, but 



32 Guernsey v. Pitkin, 32 Vermont 226. 

33 State V. School Dist. No. 1 of Dixon County, 31 Neb. 55' 



3-i STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

has left it purely optional with parents and guardians \vhether 
the children under their charge shall study such branches."'^* 

Similarly, in Morrow v. Wood, in 1874, where the real point 
at issue was the right of the teacher to compel a pupil to study 
a particular branch, the supreme court declared : 

"Certain studies are required to be taught in the public 
schools bv statute. The right of one pupil must be so exercised, 
undoubtedly, as not to prejudice the equal rights of others. But 
the parent has the right to make a reasonable selection from the 
prescribed studies for his child to pursue, and this cannot possibly 
conflict with the equal rights of other pupils."""' 

Recently the right of the parents to make a reasonable se- 
lection of studies for their children to pursue has again been 
tried in court. Some of the parents in district No. 18, of Garvin 
County, Okla., did not desire to have their children take singing 
lessons, which formed a part of the prescribed course of study. 
The parents requested the school board to excuse their children 
from this exercise, but the school authorities denied the request. 
The children were expelled for refusing to participate, and suit 
was instituted. The case reached the supreme court, which ruled 
as follows : 

"The .school authorities of the state have the power to classify 
and grade the scholars in their respective districts and cause 
them to be taught in such departments as they may deem expedi- 
ent. They may also prescribe the courses of study and text-books 
for the use of the schools, and such reasonable rules and regula- 
tions as thev may think needful. They may also require prompt 
attendance, respectful deportment, and diligence in study. The 
parent, however, has a right to make a reasonable selection from 
the prescribed course of study for his child to pursue, and his 
selection must be respected by the school authorities, as the right 
cf the parent in that regard is superior to that of the school of- 
ficers and the teachers. "^"^ 

These cases clearly indicate the power of school boards to 
frame courses of study. While the decisions regarding the pa- 
rent's right to make selections from courses of study apparently 
conflict, the general conclusion to be reached would seem to be 
that parents have a right to make reasonable selections, provided 



a4 Rulison v. Post, 79 111. 567. 

sr> Morrow v. Wood, 35 Wis. 59. 

?.c School Board v. Thompson. 103 Pac. 578. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 35 

such action does not interfere with the general welfare of the 
school. 

School Efficiency. 

The effectiveness of the laws of the state, however, depends 
in large measure upon their proper enforcement. The mere ob- 
servance of the letter and not the spirit of the law is of little 
avail. Not the name of the subject, but its content is important, 
^lere formal instruction devoid of all vitality, in some or all the 
specified branches of the curriculum, profits but little. Unless the 
community does its part to provide suitable conditions, procure 
properly qualified teachers, and interests itself in the actual work 
of the school, the best results cannot be obtained, and the public 
school will fall short of performing its proper function. The at- 
tention, or lack of attention, now given to schools in many com- 
munities, will doubtless result in the future enactment of such 
laws and the promulgation of such measures as will tend to make 
the public school more truly effective. 

Eighth-Grade Examination. 

State control of eighth-grade examinations has evidently this 
end in view. Such examinations are now required in a number of 
the states.^' Here should also be mentioned the examination re- 
cjuired of eighth-grade graduates in Illinois in the awarding of 
scholarships entitling the holder to gratuitous instruction in any 
state normal school of Illinois for a period of four 3^ears.^* 

State Subsidies. 

In the effort to make the elementary schools efficient, it has 
been found necessary for the state to assume greater and greater 
control. It has become recognized that, if the schools are to be- 
come efficient, not only must definite standards be demanded of 
all the schools, as a result of which are the various state require- 
ments in respect to studies, which have just been examined, but 
genuine local interest in education must be aroused. To stimu- 
late the growth, in the endeavor to improve educational oppor- 



37 Cal., Sch. L. '13, p. SI, sec. 1663; Id. Sch. L. '13, p. 92, sec. 187; 
Ind., Sch. Li. '11, p. 53. sec. 37; Mon., Sch. L. '13, p. 69, sec. 903; C, 
Sch. L. '12, p. 122, sees. 7740-7744; Ore., Sch. L. '13, p. 161, sec. 411; 
S. Dak., Sch. L. '13, p. 29, sec. 147; Wash., Sch. L. '13, p. 189, ch. 17. 

B8 111., Sch. L. '12, p. 52, sec. 166. 



36 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

[unities, the states are more and more extending their policies of 
giving financial support to the schools of the state. 

"More and more each year the different states are endeavor- 
ing to extend financial assistance to the least wealthy communities 
by making direct appropriations for the expansion and improve- 
ment of the' various grades of elementary schools. Connecticut, 
Florida, Alaine, ]Maryland, Minnesota, Nebraska, Ohio, Utah, 
Virginia, West A'irgina and Wisconsin may be selected as typical 
of what is being accomplished to raise educational standards by 
wisely directed financial assistance.'""'^ 

State Supervision of School Buildings. 

Besides the states are concerning themselves more and more 
with the indirect forces that make for efficiency of school work. 
Illustrative of this is the state control that is being increasingly 
exercised in the erection, construction and proper ecjuipment of 
sanitary school buildings. ^° 

The Centralizing Tendency a Recent Growth. 

This control exercised by the state over the elementary 
schools is largely a development of recent years. In the earlier 
days, the subjects of instruction were few and every locality was 
practically a law unto itself. 

"During the seventeenth century, the only subjects taught 
by legislative requirements in the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, 
Plymouth, Connecticut, New Amsterdam and New Sweden were 
reading, writing, religion and capital laws.'"^^ 

"Bronson Alcott, the prominent educator, born in Alassachu- 
setts, in 1799, in describing the schools of his boyhood, says : 
'Until within a few years no studies have been permitted in the 
day school but spelling, reading, and writing. Arithmetic was 
taught by few instructors on one or two evenings a week. But in 
spite of the most determined opposition arithmetic is now per- 
mitted in the day school.' This was in JMassachusetts at the be- 
ginning of this century" (i. e. the 19th).'*- 

The laws of Massachusetts, in 1789, required orthography, 
reading, writing, English grammar, geography, and decent be- 
havior. In 1826, tow^ns or districts containing fiftv families or 



30 state School Systems, II, Bulletin No. 7, p. 86. 

40 State School Systems, II, Bulletin No. 7, p. 119. 

41 Dexter: History of Education in the United States, p. 156. 
i^Cajori: The Teaching and Historj^ of Mathematics in the V. S., 

United States Bureau of Education, Circular of Information, No. 3, 1S90, 
p. 9. 



ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 37 

householders had to add arithmetic to the course. The act of 1857 
provided for orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, 
geography, arithmetic, algebra, history of the United States, and 
good behavior (physiology and hygiene, optional). In 1860, draw- 
ing and music were made permissible and, in 1863, agriculture. In 
1870, drawing was included among the branches, and all towns 
of 10,000 must provide for industrial and mechanical drawing to 
persons over fifteen. Six years later, sewing was made permissible. 
In 1885, physiology and hygiene with reference to the effects of 
stimulants and narcotics was required. Thus gradually the cur- 
riculum has been extended, and one subject after another has 
been made a legal requirement. The history of Massachusetts in 
this respect is typical of other states. More and more the state 
has increased its demands and made greater and greater efforts to 
improve the efficiency and usefulness of the schools. The in- 
creasing state control of the elementary curriculum is thus plainly 
recognizable, and constitutes one of the significant centralizing 
tendencies taking place in the educational administration. 



38 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 



CHAPTER III. 

SECONDARY EDUCATION. 

The Need of Secondary Education. 

Whatever may be the view as to the purpose of the high 
school, it holds or should hold a most important place in the edu- 
cational regime. The elementary school at best can but offer the 
very rudiments of an education and, without further training, the 
individual does not attain that development necessary for his 
highest efficiency. In the days of the pioneer, the time of brawn 
rather than brain, there was little time or occasion for secondary 
education. The common school answered the need of that early 
day, not because of its superior excellence, but because of the 
simple demands of the time. The elementary school of today, 
imperfect as it is, and far from attaining as yet that measure of 
effectiveness that it ought, does not suft'er in comparison with the 
school of yore. The school of our forefathers was not that em- 
bodiment of thoroughness often ascribed to it, nor the creator of 
the great men and women that have gone forth from its door, and 
who have thrown about it a halo not at all its own. It was not 
so much the school, as the time, the occasion, and the environ- 
ment, that fashioned these men and women who left their im- 
press on the Hfe of the nation. The conditions of life have so 
changed, socially, commercially, economically, that what was for- 
merly amply sufficient is now wholly inadequate. Today, a sec- 
ondary education is almost a necessity for thorough efficiency in 
any walk of life. This training is given during the most eventful 
period in the life of the individual, the most potent character-build- 
ing period of all the years, and its importance well deserves the 
best thought and attention that can be given it. 

The Origin of the High School. 

The modern high school is largely a product of the last half 
of the 19th centurv. For a time, the academies^ were the chief 



1 See chap. I, p. 14. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 39 

means for secondary education, but early in the 19th century 
there arose a demand for schools under public control. Various 
influences contributed to this end. Free elementary schools had 
become an established fact, and the idea of education under public 
control was abroad in the land. With the development of the 
elementary school system, there came to be a large number of 
children no't intended for college or professional life who, never- 
theless, were ready for further school privileges. Better social 
and economic conditions tended to increase this class. The first 
step to meet this growing demand for more extended training" 
was taken by the larger towns and municipalities. The schools 
thus established as an upward extension or outgrowth of the 
elementary schools were regarded as the schools of the people, in 
contradistinction from the academies, the schools for those who 
were able to pay. The right of school authorities to thus main- 
tain public high schools was established in the well-known Kala- 
mazoo case.- 

To Boston belongs the honor of establishing the first English 
high school in this country, in 1821. Before the Civil War, the 
number of high schools established was comparatively small. Dr. 
Harris estimates it at forty. ■'' There were doubtless others which 
bore this name, tfiough probably not much more than advanced 
elementary schools. By 1870, according to the same authority, 
the number had increased to at least 160, and by 1880. to 800. 
It is, however, especially the last decade or two that may be 
designated as a high school era. From 2,526 public high schools, 
with 202.963 students, in 1890, the number had increased to 8,960 
schools and 770,-156 students, in 1908,* and to 10.234 schools and 
984,677 students, in 1910.= 

State Requirements as to Courses of Study. 

The early high schools were often founded under special 
charters and statutes, hence, it is difificult to determine their 
statutory provisions. The law usually provided that the studies 
to be pursued should be determined by the local board. While 



2 See chap. IV. 

?. Harris: Recent growth of public high schools, etc. Proc. X. E. A., 
•01, p. 175. 

4 U. S. Commissioner's Report, 1908, vol. 2, pp. 861, 865. 
." U. S. Commissioner's Report, 1911, vol. 2, p. 1184. 



40 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

the legal enactments do not always keep pace with the needs and 
educational progress of the time, and the law doubtless does not 
reflect fully the place occupied by secondary education, the sta- 
tutes of all the states and territories, without exception, con- 
tain some legislation on this important subject, and indicate 
the change that has taken place in respect to secondary school 
administration. 

In the control of the secondary curricula today, the diilerent 
states pursue as varying a policy, as they do in the elementary 
school, but the power of performing this function for the former 
is not yet vested so widely in state authorities as the latter. In 
twenty-four states,*' the determination of the curriculum is left 
to the local school board (or board of education, board of direc- 
tors, school committee, etc.) which, however, in a few cases must 
conform to some g-eneral authority or direction. In Arizona, the 
course of study must be approved by the State Board of Educa- 
tion ;' in California, by the County Board of Education, except 
in cities and incorporated towns f in Iowa, by the State Super- 
intendent of Public Instruction.^ The course of study of rural 
high schools in Michigan must be approved by the Superinten- 
dent of Public Instruction and the President of the Michigan 
Agricultural College." In North Dakota, the State High School 
Board has the power to establish necessary and suitable rules re- 
garding examinations, classification of schools and courses of 
study, and no state aid shall be granted by said board to any 
school until the report of the high school inspector has been ex- 
amined and found satisfactory.^^ Six states^- vest this power to 
formulate the high school curriculum in the state superintendent, 
while fourteen others^^ make it the dutv of the state board of edu- 



6 Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, 
Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Nebraska, 
New Mexico, North Dakota, New York, Oklahoma, Ohio, Rhode Island. 
South Dakota, Texas, Utah and Wyoming. 

7 Arizona, Sch. L. '12, sec. 82. 

s California, Sch. L.. '13, sec. 1750. 
Iowa, Sch. L. '11, sec. 2776. 

10 Michigan, Sch. L. '11, p. 157, sec. 4. 

11 North Dakota, Sch. K '11, chap. 267, sees. 1034, 1036. 
]2AlalDama, Missouri, North Carolina. Oregon (for the first two 

years of Co. H. S. The last two years are determined by the Co. H. S. 
B'd), Vermont, Wisconsin. 

IS Delaware, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Mon- 
tana, New Jersey, Nevada, Oregon (for union H. S.), South Carolina, 
Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 41 

cation. Florida assigns this work to a committee consisting of 
the State Superintendent of Public Instruction and "of not less 
than six or more than ten most capable persons, of whom not less 
than one-third shall be presidents or principals of state institu- 
tions for higher education, and not less than one-third shall be 
principals of high or graded schools."" In Washington, it is the 
duty of the principal of each school, in all districts of the first 
class (districts maintaining high schools of not less than a two 
years course of study), to prepare a course of study, under the di- 
rection of the city board of education, which must be approved by 
the state superintendent before going into effect. ^^' Pennsylvania 
makes it the duty of the superintendent having supervision of the 
high school, subject to the modification of school directors.^^ For 
Hawaii, the department of public instruction, consisting of the 
Superintendent of Public Instruction and six commissioners, pre- 
scribes the courses of study for high schools. ^'^ 

Extent of State Control. 

Eighteen^ ^ states prescribe specific requirements more or less 
extensive. For the county high schools of Tennessee the law 
provides : 

"In every county high school shall be taught all the branches 
of study now required or permitted by law to be taught in the 
secondary schools, excepting and excluding the branches named 
to be taught in the five grades of the primary schools ; and in ad- 
dition such other high school branches may be taught as the 
Board of Education may prescribe as necessary to prepare pupils 
for college or for business. The county high schools shall be 
graded by the Board of Education under the general regulations 
of the State Superintendent and the supervision of the County 
Superintendent, beginning with the sixth grade, which sixth 
grade shall be adjusted for the admission of pupils who have 
completed the five grades of the primary schools."^® 

Indiana enacted in 1907 that: 

"The public schools of the state be and are defined and dis- 
tinguished as (a) elementary schools and (b) high schools. The 



14 Florida, Sch. L. '11, p. 35. sec. 78. 

13 W"ashing-ton, Sch. L. '1.3, p. 126, sec. 268. 

16 Pennsylvania, Sch. L.. '13, p. 95, sec. 1712. 

17 Hawaii, Sch. L,. '11, p. 9, sec. 25. 

i8 0al.. Fla., Ga., Kan., Me., Mel., Mo., Mich.; Neb., N. H., N. J., Okla., 
O., Ore., Tenn., Va., Vt, Wis. 

10 Tennessee, Sch. L>. '11, p. 39, sec. 4. 



42 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

elementary schools shall include the first eight years of school 
work, and the course of study for such years that which is now 
prescribed or may hereafter be prescribed by law. The commis- 
sioned high schools shall include not less than four year's work, 
following the eight years in the elementary schools. The high 
school course in non-commissioned high schools shall be uniform 
throughout the state and shall follow a course to be established 
and amended or altered from time to time as occasion may arise, 
by the state board of education. 

"The following enumerated studies shall be taught in all 
Commissioned high schools throughout the state, together with 
such additonal studies as any local board of education may elect 
to have taught in its high school : Provided, That such additions 
shall be subject to revision of the state board of education. 
Mathematics : Commercial arithmetic, algebra, geometry. His- 
tory : United States, ancient, medieval or modern. Geography : 
Commercial or physical. English: Composition, rhetoric. Liter- 
ature: English, American. Language (foreign): Latin or Ger- 
man. Science : Biology, physics or chemistry. Civil government : 
General, state. Drawing. Music.'"-'' 

Minimum Requirements. 

California, Florida, Idaho, Kansas, Maine, Maryland. Mis- 
souri, New Hampshire. New Jersey, North Dakota, Oregon and 
Tennessee,-^ specify minimum requirements, which must be ob- 
served in the framing of the course of study. 

The statutes of Florida require of the committee before men- 
tioned that the "course of study shall require minimum require- 
ments and shall be arranged as far as practicable to secure 
equality of mental power and training among those completing its 
instruction."-- But the course of study "shall not prescribe un- 
necessary details as to order or methods of instruction, though 
it may recommend such details. "-- 

The requirements in Oregon are as follows : 

"The course of study for high schools in this state shall em- 
brace a period of four years, above the eighth grade of the public 
schools of this state, and shall contain two years of required 
work, which shall be uniform in all high schools of the state. 
Such course of study for the two' years of required work shall be 
laid down by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, after due 
consultation with all county and district high school boards in the 



30 Indiana, Sch. L. '11, p. 112, sees. 133, 134. 

21 See appendix. 

22 Florida. Sch. L. '11, p. 35, sec. 78. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 43 

State. The course of study for the two years of optional work 
in all high schools shall be laid down by the county high school 
board in the county or the district school board in case of district 
high schools, after due consultation with the State Superintendent 
of Public Instruction ; provided, that in any high school of this 
state it may be provided by the directors thereof that all or part 
of the two years of optional work in the high school course shall 
be devoted to industrial training. In high schools where indus- 
trial training is made part of the course, the required studies, and 
industrial training, may be interspersed throughout the four years' 
high school work, as may be deemed best by the board of direc- 
tors of such school."-' 

The law in Missouri grants authority to the State Superin- 
tendent to classify the high schools of the state and prescribe 
minimum recjuirements for each class with this provision : 

"No school shall be classed as a high school of the first class 
vv^hich does not maintain a four years' course of standard work in 
English, mathematics, science and history, for a term of at least 
nine months in a year, and which does not employ the entire time 
of at least three approved teachers in high school work : that no 
school shall be classed as a high school of the second class which 
does not maintain a three years' course of standard work in Eng- 
Hsh, mathematics, science and history, for a term of at least nine 
months in the year, and which does not employ the entire time of 
at least two approved teachers in high school work ; that no school 
shall be classed as a high school of the third class which does not 
n>aintain a two years' course of standard work in English, math- 
ematics, science and history, for a term of at least eight months 
in the year, and which does not employ the entire time of at least 
one approved teacher in high school work.""-* 

According to the rules and regulations of the State Board of 
Education of New Jersey, in order that schools may be classed as 
high schools, they must require for admission the successful com- 
pletion of eight years of graded pre-academic work, or its equiva- 
lent, approved by the State Board of Education. To be classed 
as "Approved High Schools" they must meet the following con- 
ditions : 

"AH the regular courses of study must cover four full years 
of school work, and must be approved by the State Board of Edu- 
cation. The teaching and equipment must be approved by the 
State Board of Education, but such approval will not be granted 
unless three years of high school work are in operation. The 

23 Oregon. Sch. L. '13, p. 136. sec. 338. 

24 Missouri, Sch. L. '13, p. 112, sec. 10923. , 



44 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

teaching' force must be adequate in number, and shall, in every 
case, consist of at least three teachers, each of whom shall be en- 
gaged exclusively in high school work. Diplomas shall be granted 
only to pupils who have completed a full four-year course, ag- 
gregating at least seventy-two academic counts. The counts 
shall be reckoned in accordance with the number of recitations per 
week of a school year of at least thirty-eight weeks, and the reci - 
tation periods shall average at least forty minutes." 

A three-year high school will be registered as a "Partial High 
School" in case it meets the following conditions : 

"All the regular courses of study must cover three full years 
of school work, and must be approved by the State Board of Edu- 
cation. The teaching and equipment must be approved by the 
State Board of Education, but said approval wall not be granted 
unless at least two years of high school work are in actual opera- 
tion. The teaching force must be adequate in number, and shall 
consist in every case of at least two teachers, each of whom shall 
be engaged exclusively in high school work. Certificates of 
graduation shall be granted only to pupils who have completed 
a full three-year course, aggregating at least fifty-four academic 
counts. The counts shall be reckoned in accordance with the num- 
ber of recitations per week of a school year of not less than 
thirty-eight weeks, and the recitation periods shall average not 
less than forty minutes. 

"Properly certified graduates of an approved high school 
shall be entitled to admission, without examination, to the two- 
year professional courses of the State Normal Schools. Properly 
certified graduates of a three-year partial high school shall be en- 
titled to admission, without examination, to the three-year courses 
of the State .Normal Schools. Certificates for work done may be 
granted by a local Board of Education to pupils who have not com- 
pleted a full four-year high school course, but such certificates shall 
not be granted as diplomas ; and must, in each case, state the num- 
ber of years' work successfully completed. Holders of such cer- 
tificates shall not be ranked as graduates from any course."'^ 

Though in Ohio the district board of education frames the 
course of study, the law makes rather comprehensive regulations 
regarding it. 

"A high school is one of higher grade than an elementary 
school, in which instruction and training are given in approved 
courses in the history of the United States and other countries ; 
composition, rhetoric, English and American literature ; algebra 
r.nd geometry ; natural science, political or mental science, ancient 



25 New Jersey, Sch. L. '11, p. 191. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 45 

or modern foreign languages, or both, conunercial and industrial 
branches, or such of the branches nanied as the length of its cur- 
riculum makes possible. Also such other branches of higher 
grade than those to be taught in the elementary schools with such 
advanced studies and advanced reviews of the common branches 
as the board of education directs. The high schools of the state 
shall be classified into schools of the first, second and third grades. 
All courses of study offered in such schools shall be in branches 
enumerated in section seventy-six hundred and forty-nine (above 
quoted). A high school of the first grade shall be a school in 
which the courses ofl:'ered cover a period of not less than four 
years, of not less than thirty-two weeks each, in which not less than 
sixteen courses are required for graduation. A high school of 
the second grade shall cover a period of not less than three years, 
of not less than thirty-two weeks each, in which not less than 
twelve courses of study are required for graduation. A high 
school of the third grade shall cover a period of not less than two 
years, of not less than twenty-eight v/eeks each, in which not less 
than eight courses of stud)^ are required for graduation. Public 
schools of a less grade shall be denominated as elementary schools. 
A course of study shall consist of not less than four recitations a 
week, continued throughout the school year."-'' 

The Aim of the High School. 

The aim of the high school is still an unsettled question. 
Shall it prepare for college and higher institutions of learning, 
shall it lead to special vocations, or shall it be in the interests of 
those for whom the high school is a finishing school? Only in a 
few states, California, Florida, Kansas, Massachusetts, ^Minnesota, 
Montana, Nevada, Ohio, Oklahoma, New Hampshire and Wyo- 
ming, does the law stipulate preparation for college. In this con- 
nection, the law in ^Missouri is of interest in that it requires that : 

"All work completed in an accredited high school shall be 
given full credit in requirement for entrance to, and classification 
in, any educational institution supported in whole or in part by 
state appropriation."-' 

Kansas illustrates the attempt of meeting the requirements 
of preparation for college, as well as special and general needs. 
In regard to high schools, in counties of 6000 or over, the law" 
stipulates : 

"There shall be provided three courses of instruction, each 
requiring four years' study for completion, namely, a general 

20 Ohio, Sch. L. '12, p. 98, sees. 7649-55. 
27 Missouri, Sch. L,. '1.3, p. 112, sec. 10923. 



46 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

course, a normal course, and a collegiate course. The general 
course shall be designed for those who cannot continue school 
life after leaving said hig;h school. The normal course shall be 
designed for those who intend to become teachers, and shall fully 
prepare any who wish to enter the first year of professional work 
of the State Normal School. The collegiate course shall fully 
prepare those who wish to enter the freshman class of the college 
of liberal arts and sciences of the State University, or of the 
State Agricultural College, or of any other institution of higher 
learning in this state. Whenever practicable, students in these 
courses shall recite in the same classes. Students in the last year 
of the normal course may be employed for a portion of their time 
in teaching the pupils of the first year in any course, and model 
schools shall be encouraged."-^ 

Similarly in Massachusetts, the law is designed to have the 
curriculum meet the wants of all. 

"Every city and every town containing, according tO' the 
laiest census, state or national, five hundred families or house- 
holders, shall, and any other may, maintain a high schobl, ade- 
quately equipped, which shall be kept by a principal and such as- 
sistants as may be needed, of competent ability and good morals, 
who shall give instruction in such subjects designated in the pre- 
ceding section as the school committee considers expedient to be 
taught in the high school, and in such additional subjects as may 
be required for the general purpose of preparing pupils for ad- 
mission to state normal schools, technical schools, and colleges. 
One or more courses of study, at least four years in length, shall 
be maintained in each sucTi high school, and it shall be kept open 
for the benefit of all inhabitants of the city or town for at least 
forty weeks, exclusive of vacations, in each year. A town may 
cause instruction to be given in a portion only of the foregoing 
requirements, if it makes adequate provisions for instruction in 
others in the high school of another city or town.""--' 

State Aid. 

In the development of secondary education, state aid has 
been and is playing a very important part. Not only is the bur- 
den of local taxation lightened through this means, but local in- 
terest and endeavor for the maintenance of educational oppor- 
tunities is stimulated. Thus the law in Minnesota provides : 

"The high school board shall have full discretionary power 
to consider and act upon applications of high schools for state aid 



2S Kansas, Sch. L,. '13, p. 130, sec. 379. 

20 Massachusetts, Sch. L. '11, ch. 42, sec. 2. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 47 

and, svibject to the provisions of this act, may prescribe the condi- 
tions upon which such aid will be granted ; and it shall be its 
duty to accept and aid such high schools only as will, in its opin- 
ion, if aided, efficientl}' perform the services contemplated by law ; 
but not more than nine schools shall be aided in each county in 
any one year. Any school accepted and continuing to comply with 
the law and regulations of the board, made in pursuance thereof, 
shall be aided not less than two years. In case any state graded 
school, as hereinafter provided, shall have attained such a degree 
of proficiency as to entitle it to promotion to a high school, and 
tlie state high schools in the county shall have already reached 
tlie number of nine, such graded school, in the discretion of the 
board, ma}- be so promoted, and take the place of the high school 
in th6 county first receiving state aid for the period of at least 
two years ; that any state high school so deprived of state aid shall 
continue under the supervison of the board, with all the privileges, 
except state aid. of a preparatory school for the University of 
jNIinnesota."-'" 

Alabama (since July, 1911) makes a state appropriation of 
$3,000 annually to any county high school which meets certain re- 
quirements as to site and building.^^ 

Manual and Industrial Training. 

Manual and industrial training have received special recogni- 
tion in a number of states. Indiana, Illinois, Maryland, Maine, 
Nebraska, Oregon, Vermont, Wisconsin, make special provision 
in this respect. The !Maine law is of interest because of what it 
excludes as well as what is included. 

"The course of study in the free high schools shall embrace 
the ordinary English academic studies which are taught in the 
secondary schools, especially the natural sciences in their applica- 
tion to mechanics, manufactures and agriculture ; but the ancient 
or modern languages and music shall not be taught therein, ex- 
cept by direction of the superintending school committees having 
supervision thereoof."^- 

Wisconsin ofifers special state aid to those high schools which 
add manual training to their curriculum and comply with the 
specified conditions of the law.'"*^ 

\'ermont, in 1908, enacted : 

"Any high or grammar school whose course of study or out- 



30 'Minnesota. Sell. L. '13. p. 85, sec. 248. 
"1 Alabama. Sch. L.. '11, p. 73, sec. 1862. 

32 Maine. Sch. L. '13, p. 25. sec. 59. 

33 Wisconsin, Sch. L. '11, p. 197, sec. 496b. 



48 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

line or work in manual training- has been approved by the state 
superintendent of education may, upon application, be placed upon 
an approved list of schools maintaining manual training' depart- 
ments. A school once entered upon such list may remain there 
and be entitled to state aid sO' long as the scope and character of 
its work are maintained in such manner as to meet the approval 
of said superintendent. On the first day of July, in each year, 
the clerk of each school board maintaining a school on the ap- 
proval list or the city superintendent of any city where such an 
approved school is maintained, shall report to the state superin- 
tendent of education in such form as may be required, setting 
forth the facts relating to the cost of maintaining' the manual 
training department thereof, the character of the Avork done, the 
number and names of teachers employed, and the length of time 
such department was maintained during the preceding year. And 
upon the receipt of such report, if it shall appear that the de- 
partment has been maintained in a satisfactory manner for a 
period of not less than six months during the year, the said 
superintendent shall make a certificate to that eft'ect and file it with 
the auditor of accounts. Upon receiving such certificate, the au- 
ditor of accounts shall draw an order for two- hundred and fifty 
dollars, payable to the treasurer of the town, city or district, 
maintaining the school ; provided, that the total amount expended 
for such purpose shall not exceed five thousand dollars in anv 
year."^* 

In ?\Iaryland, the state board of. education divides all county 
high schools receiving state aid into two gjoups, according to the 
number of pupils enrolled, the teachers employed, and the vears 
of instruction given. ^'^ 

Those in the first group shall receive "the sum of $G00, on 
account of the principal, and the sum of $300, on account of each 
of the first three assistants employed for regular high school 
work ; the sum of $400, on account of each of two special teachers, 
who shall spend not less than two-thirds of their time in the 
school receiving said amounts ; and the sum of $100, on account 
of each additional regular grade teacher, provided the total 
amount does not exceed the sum of $2,500.^*' Those of the sec- 
ond group shall receive "the sum of $600, on account of the prin- 
cipal ; the sum of $400, on account of one assistant teacher, em- 
ployed for regular high school work; and the sum of $400, on 
account of the instructor of special subjects, to be designated by 
the county school board; provided, that if an instructor in manual 
training or agricultural work be required to divide his time among 

K4 Vermont, Sch. L. '11. p. 26, No. 40, Acts of 1908. 
3.-. Maryland. ■ Sch. L. '12, p. 50, sec. 126. 
r,n Maryland, Sch. L. '12, p. 52, sec. 12S. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 49 

not more than four schools of this group, $150 shall be allowed 
on account of each of such schools. "^^ 

Agriculture. 

Agriculture has received special attention. In Nebraska, af- 
ter stating that the joint high school manual before mentioned 
shall be the course of study, the law for county high schools 
specifies : 

"And in addition thereto there shall be taught and practiced 
in the ninth and tenth grades, manual training, domestic science 
and the elements of agriculture, and in the eleventh and twelfth 
grades, normal training and the theory and practice of agriculture, 
and for the purpose of such teaching and practice the Board of 
Regents is hereby authorized to purchase the necessary apparatus 
and materials for those purposes. The board of County Com- 
missioners or County Supervisors shall purchase a tract of land 
not less than five acres, conveniently situated to stich county high 
school, for actual practice by all the students or a part of the 
students, under the direction of a competent instructor, for ex- 
perimentation in all forms of agriculture."'" 

The new state of Oklahoma, however, has so far taken the 
farthest step in this direction. 

"There shall be established in each of the supreme court 
judicial districts a district agricultural school of secondary grade 
for instruction in agriculture and mechanics, and allied branches, 
and domestic science and economies, with courses of instruction 
leading to the Agricultural and Mechanical College, and the state 
normals. Each of said agricultural schools shall be provided with 
not less than eighty acres of land, without cost to the state, and 
deeded in perpetuity to the state. The location, operation, and 
equipment of said agricultural schools shall be under the admin- 
istration of the state commission of agricultural and industrial 
education, subject to the approval of the board of agriculture. 

"There shall be an experimental farm, operated by each of 
said agricultural schools, on which careful trials shall be made 
of the best fruits, vegetables, flowers, field and forage crops, fer- 
tilizers, and stock feeds for that section, as well as the systems of 
dairying, drainage, irrigation and farm management that may be 
considered of practical value and adapted to the needs of the 
people in such supreme court judicial districts; Provided, That 
each district agricultural school shall make at least one report an- 
nually to the governor of the state, covering all work done, its 



3C. Maryland, Sch. L. '12, p. .52, sec. 128. 
r>7 Nebraska, Sch. L. '13, p. 57, sec. 120. 



50 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

cost, the results, and the probable value of such experiments, 
which report shall be published for free distribution to farmers, 
fruit and vegetable growers and stockmen in the supreme judicial 
districts in which said school is located. There shall be held an- 
nually by each of said agricultural schools a farmers' short course, 
extending over at least one week, and embracing practical and 
elementary scientific instruction in those branches of agriculture 
that may he deemed most important in the supreme court judicial 
district in which any such agricultural school is located at the 
time such short course of instruction is to be provided, including 
a course in domestic economy, canning, preserving and cooking."^** 

Georgia, in 1906, passed an act providing for the establish- 
ment and maintenance of schools of agriculture and mechanic arts 
in the congressional districts of the state. 

"Be it further enacted. That the course of studies in said 
schools shall be confined to the elementary branches of an Eng- 
lish education, the practical treatises or lectures on agriculture 
in all its branches, and the mechanic arts, and such other studies 
as will enable students completing the course to enter the fresh- 
man class of the State College of Agriculture on certificate of the 
principal. Be it further enacted, That the faculty of such schools 
shall consist of the principal, who shall be an intelligent farmer : 
one superintendent and instructor in farm work, one intelligent 
mechanic, who shall direct and instruct in all mechanical work 
in and out of the shops ; one practical instructor in care of stock 
and dairying, one instructor in English, and such other instruc- 
tors and assistants as the funds of the college may permit. That 
the trustees may dispense with and combine the duties of any of 
the above, as necessity may require, and it shall be the duty of 
said instructors in said schools to co-operate in conducting 
farmers' institutes and farm and stock demonstrations in the 
several counties of their respective districts. Be it further en- 
acted. That after the first buildings are erected, before the opening 
of such school, which shall be only such as are absolutely neces- 
sary for temporary use, all work on, in and about such schools, 
or on the farm, or on or in the barns and. shops connected with 
said schools, whether it be farming, care of stock, or work of 
whatever kind, shall be performed exclusively by the students of 
said schools, under such regulations for the proper division and 
alternation in such work as may be provided by the trustees. "^^ 

Texas makes it the duty of the State Board of Education "to 
duplicate by an appropriation out of money provided for by this 
Act an amount not less than five hundred dollars, nor more than 



?.8 Oklahoma, Sch. L. '12, p. 65, sees. 235, 237, 238. 
sn Georgia, 1906, Act No. 448. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 51 

fifteen hundred dollars, that shall have been set apart by the 
trustees of a public high school of the first class or of the second 
class, the establishment of which is herein authorized, or any 
such high school that has already been established in either a 
common school district or an independent district, for establish- 
ing, equipping and maintainng a department of agriculture; an 
amount of not less than five hundred dollars, nor more than one 
thousand dollars, that shall have been set apart by the trustees 
of any such high school for establishingf, equipping and maintain- 
ing a department of domestic economy; and an amount of not 
less than five hundred dollars, nor more than one thousand dol- 
lars, that shall have been set apart by the trustees of any such hig'h 
school for establishing, equipping and maintaining a department 
of manual training ; an amount of not less than five hundred 
dollars, nor more than one thousand dollars, that shall have been 
set apart b}' the trustees of a public high school of the third class 
in a common school district for establishing, equipping and main- 
taining a department of agriculture ; provided, that not more 
than two thousand dollars shall be appropriated by the State Board 
of Education for the purpose mentioned to any one high school 
during the same scholastic year ; and provided further, that such 
appropriation shall not be made more than twice to the same 
school. The board of trustees of the high school applying for 
state aid for establishing, equipping and maintaining a depart- 
ment of agriculture, domestic economy or manual training, shall 
provide ample room and laboratories for the teaching of each sub- 
ject or subjects, and in connection with the department of agri- 
culture in the high school, shall provide a tract of land, conven- 
ientty located, which shall be sufficiently large and well adapted 
to the production of farm and garden plants, and shall employ 
a teacher who has received special training for giving efficient in- 
struction in the subject."^" 

Selection and Adoption of Textbooks. 

Other means of state control of elementary and secondary 
education should be referred to in this connection. These, while 
not made a special study here, yet because of their decided influ- 
ence, must be briefly considered. The selection and adoption of 
textbooks has no small influence on the effectiveness of any sys- 
tem of schools. Every state, with the exception of Alabama, 
which allows county option in this matter, prescribes some sort of 
uniformity. Twenty states^^ prescribe district, town, or township 



40 Texad, Sch. L. '13, p. 56, sec. 141. 

41 Ark., Col., Conn., 111., la., Me., Mass., Mich., Minn., Nev., N. H., 
N. J., N. T., N. Dak., O., Pa., R. I., Vt, Wis., Wyo. 



52 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

uniforriiity, eight*- county uniformity, thirteen*^ state uniformity. 
Where the district, town or township system prevails, the local 
boards select the books. In New York, the voters in the annual 
meeting perform this duty. Ohio limits the district board in its 
selection to a list prepared by the state textbook commission, 
while in Wyoming, the state superintendent procures samples and 
c[uotations of prices for the benefit of local boards. Of the states 
liaving county uniformity, four have special textbook boards ; in 
the others, the selection of textbooks is a function of the county 
board of education. Of the states requiring state uniformity, one- 
Imlf have special textbook boards, while in the rest, the textbook 
question is settled by the state board of education. California pub- 
lishes its own textbooks for elementary schools, but has discon- 
tinued the practice of employing local educators to compile such 
books. Similar publication under contract is authorized by law 
in Kansas, Indiana. South Dakota, Texas and Tennessee.** 

Examination and Certification of Teachers. 

Another very important means of state control of elementary, 
as well as secondary education, is the preparation, examination, 
and certification of teachers. That the efficiency of any school 
is directly dependent on the fitness of the teacher for his work is 
self-evident, and hence the efforts being made for the professional 
education and training of teachers represents one of the most 
significant phases of educational development. The organization 
and improvement of departments and schools of education in uni- 
versities and colleges, state and city normal schools, training 
schools, teachers' institutes, and summer schools are all indicative 
of the greater and greater attention that the academic and profes- 
sional preparation of teachers is receiving. The very presence of 
these agencies and their increasing activity is evidence of the de- 
mand for better qualified teachers. 

"In all grades of public schools the greatest demand of the 
present is for more and better qualified teachers. The demand for 
qualified teachers in villages and cities has in the great majority 
of states greatly exceeded the supply of graduates from the nor- 



42Fla., Ga., Ky., Md., Miss., N. C, S. Dak., W. Va. 

43 Oal., E-'el., Ida., Ind., Kan., La., Mo., Mon., Nev., Ore., S. C, Utah, Va. 

44 Dexter: History of Education in the U. S., p. 219. 



SECONDARY EDUCATION 53 

mal schools and other schools for the professional training" of 
teachers.''*^' 

One of the most interesting phases of legislative activity is 
that pertaining to the professional education and training of 
teachers. Two tendencies in this are plainly recognizable : the 
gradual raising of the standard of academic and professional re- 
quirements for certification and the centralization of this certifica- 
tion in state authorities. More and more this power is being with- 
drawn from county officers and boards and vested in state officials. 

"Each year the legislative evidence becomes plainer that the 
control and regulation of the examination and certification of 
teachers entirely by the state is to become a settled principle of 
American school administration and supervision. "*'' 

Centralization of Control. 

Though it is thus fully apparent that the state is exercising 
an increasing control over high school curricula, much is left to 
local communities to make the same efifective. State control, how- 
ever, does not mean necessarily lack of local freedom. Thus, in 
Minnesota, the high schools are remarkably free to frame their 
own courses of study. 

"The only rule of the High School Board relative to courses 
ofstud}'' is one requiring four years of English and twelve other 
credits — in all, sixteen credits for graduation. A credit is defined 
as a subject pursued as one of four for a year. The make-up of 
this list of twelve credits is left entirely to the superintendent, act- 
ing under direction of the local board of education. The State 
University requires candidates to present four credits in English, 
two and one-half credits in mathematics, and eight and one-half 
other credits chosen from a long list — in all fifteen credits. The 
difference of one credit between the University and state stand- 
ards enables the high schools to fill in the sixteenth credit with 
any subject for which there may be local or temporary demand. 
In this way many schools are able to offer college preparatory stu- 
dents advanced work in the history of English literature, book- 
keeping, commercial arithmetic, senior common branches, manual 
training, drawing and many other subjects."*^ 



45 state School Systems, Bulletin No. 7, p. 174. 

46 State School Systems, Bulletin No. 3, p. 69. 

47 Alton: Standards of Graduation. Biennial Report of the Super- 
intendent of Public Instruction of Minnesota, 1907 and 190S. 



54 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

That the tendency, however, is toward state control m secon- 
dary education is evident. The entire foregoing consideration 
substantiates this. It has been found necessary on the part of the 
state, in order to induce the various localities to make the most 
of their opportunities, to exercise increasing control over the 
various educational forces, in order that such secondary schools 
niav be maintained as will best meet the needs of all concerned. 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION , Oo 



CHAPTER IV. 
FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION. 
Language a Vehicle of Thought and Expression. 

Language and literature have, with all civilized people, held 
a prominent place in education. While there may be human in- 
telligence independent of language, there cannot be any progress 
beyond a very rudimentary stage without adequate means of ex- 
pression.^ Without it human thought is barely possible- and sin- 
gularly limited in its scope. It is the mold which the product of 
mind assumes to become valuable and significant for other minds. 
As mind grows only through its own self-activity, the key to the 
world of thought and fancy and imagination which language 
symbolizes lies in the vital experience of the conscious mind. This 



1 "Language and ideational processes developed togetlier and are 
necessary to each other."^ — ^Judd: Psychology, p. 253. 

. "In all cases where the intellectual processes issue in the forma- 
tion of genuine conception, it is the giving of a name which, on the one 
hand, so Axes for the individual using it the mental act of synthesis 
as 1o make its result capable of recall, and, on the other hand, serves 
as the means of awakening corresponding intellectual processes in 
others. But this is the same thing as to say: The name is the sup- 
port and the vehicle of the conception. If we raise the question as 
to how the name thus operates, we can answer it psychologically only 
by rehearsing the same mental processes which terminate in giving the 
name, and which are reproduced by thinking out the meaning of the 
name. For human beings who are capable of learning to speak, and 
who have actually learned to speak, words are the indispensable sup- 
port and vehicle of their truly conceptual thinking. Without words, 
thinking lapses into a mere succession of acts of image making; or else 
it awkwardly strives to substitute for its natural facile correlate some 
other form of motor activity. That is to say, without words thinking 
either ceases to be thinking, or else it adopts some other less useful 
form of movable type." — ^Ladd: Psychology, Descriptive and Explan- 
atory, p. 457. 

2 "Language is to the mind precisely what the arch is to the 
timnel; the power of thinking and the power of excavation are not 
dependent on the word in one case or on the mason work in the other; 
but without these subsidiaries, neither process could be carried beyond 
its rudimentary commencement." — Sir Wm. Hamilton: Logic, Lecture 
VIIL 



56 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

world will be found full and rich in meaning- as the acquired ver- 
nacular has become vitalized in living, conscious experience.^ 

Language a Unifying Force. 

But not only because of its significance to the individual, but 
because of its value to society and to the state, is the mother 
tongue of supreme moment. Speech is the condition of social 
intercourse, the means that makes possible human organizations. 
Through language the individual shares in the life of the com- 
munity and participates in the interchange of thought and feel- 
ing that forms the social mind. Language belongs to the com- 
munity not to the race. The members of the community may owe 
their origin to diiTerent tribes and races. Community of speech 
carries with it community of culture, and identit}^ of language 
and culture tends to create race identity. This is an easily rec- 
ognized fact in the history of nations. The German empire may 
be said to owe its growth and strength to this measure. That a 
common language is considered a strong tniifying force is shown, 
today, in the policy of Russia toward Poland.* When the latter 
came under the control of the former, the Russian language was 
made the language of the schools, as well as of all governmental 
and official relations, and to this day every possible advantage is 
accorded the Russian language, while every obstacle is placed in 
the way of the Polish. Li the Russianizing of Finland'' a like 
policy is followed, and Germany pursues a similar course in refer- 



3 "Mind grows only insofar as it finds expression for itself; it can- 
not find it through a foreign tongue. It is round the language learned 
at the mother's knee that the whole life of feeling, emotion, thought, 
gathers. If it were possible for a child or boy to live in two languages 
at once equally well, so much the worse for him. His intellectual and 
spiritual growth would not thereby be doubled, but halved. Unity of 
mind and character would have great difficulty in asserting itself in 
such circumstances. Language, remember, is at best only symbolic of 
a world of consciousness, and almost every word is rich in unexpressed 
associations of experience which give it its full value for the life of 
mind. Subtleties and delicacies and refinements of feeling and percep- 
ton are, at best, only suggested by the words we use and by their con- 
text. The major part lies deep in our conscious or balf-conscious life, 
and is, the source of the tone and color of language and of its wide- 
reaching unexpressed relations. Words, accordingly, must be steeped 
in life to be living; and as we have not two lives, but only one. so we 
can have only one language." — Laurie: Lectures on Language and 
Linguistic Method in the School, 4th edition, pp. IS, 19. 

4 A History of All Nations, vol. XIX, p. 78. 
oA History of All Nations, vol. XX, p. 252. 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION 57 

eiice to the German language in Alsace Lorraine" and Prussian 
Poland. While these countries are, probably, not achieving from 
their policies what was expected, because of the objectionable 
way in which the Russian and German languages have been 
forced upon their dependencies, calling forth race prejudice, 
nevertheless it is one of the chief agencies upon which they are 
relying for final assimilation. 

When the Phillippines came into the possession of the United 
States, one of the first things done by the government was the 
establishment of a system of education. Not only was a promin- 
ent place assigned to English, but it was made the medium of all 
instruction. Similar steps were taken with reference to Porto 
Rico to transplant the free /Vmerican Public School to that tropi- 
cal land. 

In a countr}^ hke the United States, where people have 
gathered from every land and clime, bringing with them differ- 
ent interests, different social and political traditions, the subject 
of foreign language instruction has necessarily received greater 
or less attention. From 1821 to 1903, the total number of immi- 
grants that came into the United States aggregated 21,265,723,' 
equal to one-fourth of the present population of the entire coun- 
try. This immense influx of population included almost every na- 
tioiiality under the sun. Of this immigration, German}^ furnished 
24%; Ireland, 19%; England, Scotland and Wales, 13%; Aus- 
tria Hungary, Italy, and Russia and Poland, 21%. What shall 
be the language that the schools shall foster? Shall the people 
ultimately speak one tongue or many tongues? Shall their main 
interest lie in the English language, or shall each nationality mag- 
nify the importance of its own native tongue and perpetuate the 
ideas and tendencies peculiar to its own native source? In or- 
der that a nation composed of so many dift"erent races may main- 
tain its integrity, every influence must prevail that will conduce 
to the making of a homogeneous, rather than a heterogeneous, 
people.^ 



6 A History of All Nations, vol. XIX, p. 399. 

7 Emigration to the U. S., 1904, Special Consular Reports, vol. XXX, 
p. ix. 

s "The public school system has a great Americanizing influence on 
foreigners. The difficulty of assimilating- so many different foreign 



58 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

elements and so many persons of foreign birth is lessened through the 
public school, for the children coming to this country, and those of 
foreign born parents, must, in order to meet with fair success, learn the 
principles of American institutions and the English language, and secure 
the training of the public schools; without these schools there would 
be in America groups or communities of persons of different nation- 
alities, preserving their own language and racial characteristics. This 
would weaken republican institutions, and make the question of 
immigration far more difficult than at present. Notwithstanding the 
great influence of the public schools, however, such communities exist 
in small degree, but they gradually lose their importance. The great 
watchword of America is that all persons here must become Americans." 
— ^Wright: Practical Sociologry, p. 185. 

"In America, on the other hand, we have attempted to unite all 
races in one commonwealth and one elective government. We have, 
indeed, a most notable advantage compared with other countries, where 
race divisions- have imdermined democrac5^ A single language became 
dominant from the time of the earliest permanent settlement, and all 
subsequent races and languages must adopt the established medium. 
This is essential, for it is not physical amalgamation that unites man- 
kind; it is mental community. To be great, a nation need not be of one 
blood, it must be of one mind. ... If we think together, we can 
act together, and the organ of common thought and action is common 
language." — Commons: Races and Immigrants in America, p. 20. 

"Just as- the use of Latin and of the Vulgate maintained a sort of 
unity among Christian nations and races, even in darkest and most 
turbulent centuries of the Middle Ages, so the use of Latin and Greek 
throughout the whole Roman Empire powerfully tended to draw its 
parts together." — Bryce: Studies in History and Jurisprudence, p. 60. 

"Language is at once the bond and creation of society, the symbol 
and token of the boundary between man and brute." 

"Lranguage is a social product, at once the creation and the creator 
of society." — ^Sayce: Introduction to the Science of Language, pp. 2, 133. 

"German and Dutch and Celtic forefathers combine to form the 
giant family of the United States; but there is one cause forever at 
work to cement all these varieties of origin and to compel the American 
people, as a whole, to be proud as we are of their affinity with the 
English race. What is the cause? What is that agency? Is it not that 
of one language in common between the two nations? It is in the same 
■mother tongue their poets must sing, that their philosophers must rea- 
son, that their orators must argue upon trvith or contend for power. I 
see before me a distinguished guest, distinguished for the manner in 
which he has brought together all that is most modern in sentiment 
with all that is most scholastic in thought and language; permit me to 
say, Mr. Mathew Arnold. I appeal to him if I am not right when I 
slay that it is by a language in common that all differences of origin 
sooner or later we are welded together — that Etruscans, and Sabines, 
and Oscans, and Romans, became one family as Ijatins once, as Italians 
now? Before that agency of one language in common have not all dif- 
ferences of ancestral origin in England, between Britons, Saxons, Danes 
and Normans, melted away; and must not all similar differences equally 
melt away in the nurseries of American mothers, extracting the earliest 
lessons of their children from our own English Bible, or in the schools 
of preceptors who must resort to the same models of language when- 
ever they bid their pupils rival the pro.?e of Macaulay and Prescott, or 
emulate the verse of Tennyson and Longfellow?" — Bulwer-Lytton: Fare- 
well to Charles Dickens. Modern Eloquence, vol. II, p. 776. 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION 59 

The problem of assimilation in the United States has become 
more difficult through the massing of immigrants in nationalities. 
Foreign language instruction is naturally of special interest to 
such localities. That, e. g., the Germans of Pennsylvania, and 
in such cities as AJilwaukee and Cincinnati, the French in Lou- 
isiana, or the Spanish in New Mexico should look with special 
favor upon their mother tongue would naturally be expected. 
During the past fifteen years, too, the character of our immi- 
grants has decidedly changed. Instead of the Teutons and Celts, 
there come to the United States today the emigrants from south- 
ern and eastern Europe. 

"Of the total immigration in 1903, Germany and the United 
Kingdom furnished only 13 per cent, while Austria-Hungary, 
Italy, and Russia and Poland furnished 68 per cent." 

Instead of going to sections where labor is needed and be- 
coming diffused over this extensive country, they flock to the 
larger cities, there to form "little Italics, "little Hungaries," "lit- 
tle Germanics," "Lyrian colonies," and "Jewish colonies." Thus 
separated from American influence, instead of becoming assimi- 
lated, they perpetuate tliat ignorance of our laws, customs, politi- 
cal and moral ideas, that constitutes one of their chief dangers. 
The greater the number of points of contact between different 
races the more rapid. will be the assimilation. Any institution or 
instrumentality whatsoever, whose purpose it is to keep alive and 
prosper the characteristics peculiar to a particular foreign race 
and not in the interest of the whole people, will but delay this 
process of assimilation, without which modern nations as they 
exist today would be impossible. It is here that parochial and 
private schools, whatever valuable function they may perform, in 
so far as a foreign tongue, whether German, or French, or Polish, 
or what not, is made the basis of instruction, thus giving- a for- 
eign rather than an American education, may be a detriment to 
the nation, as well as a real harm to the community whose pro- 
gress they retard. 

Hence, it follows that in the United States, the English lang- 
uage must hold a pre-eminent place in any system of education.^ 

9 "Language and literature are not merely liberalizing, they are 
humanizing studies. Through the humanity in them we realize our 
own individual human capacities. Now the language and literature 
which best serve this ultimate end of self realization are our own. 
Consequently, the vernacular is the beginning and the end of a liberal 
education. The Greeks, to whom we owe our ideal of culture, knew no 
language but their own. But the minds of Greek school boys were 
steeped in their own noble literature. For our youth, too, I conceive 
that the essential and indispensable element in a generous culture is 
the English language and literature." — Schurman: The Report on Sec- 
ondary School Studies. The School Review, vol. II, p. 93. 



60 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

The immigrant, however much he may prize his native tongue, 
must for the sake of the nation, as weh as for personal and social 
interests, become Americanized. He must accept the language 
of his adopted country, and he may well consider himself fortu- 
nate that this is the English language, the language so rich in cul- 
ture, so full of the best of human thought and feeling, the lan- 
guage of Chaucer, of Milton, and of Shakespeare. 

Value of Foreign Language Study. 

While English must thus receive so much attention in our 
educational regimes, the foreign languages are of no mean value 
in education, though subordinate to that of the mother tongue. 
The close affinity between them and the English language makes 
some acquaintance with the former almost a necessity for a clear 
understanding and full appreciation of the latter.^" For advanced 
scholarship, they open up new avenues of approach and consti- 
tute an indispensible condition for research in many fields of 
work. The chief consideration in regard to the modern lang- 
uages, where taught in the elementary schools, is doubtless their 
commercial and social value. That this end is realized is much to 
be doubted. Inasmuch as a foreign tongue may only be studied 
as a subject of .study (see succeeding pages of this chapter), the 
actual work done can be but very elementary. 

'Tt is not worth while, as a rule, that the study of a foreign 
language be taken up in the primary grades (grades below the 
high school), unless the beginner has at least a prospect and an 
intention of going on through the secondary school. The reason 
for this opinion is that what can be accjuired of a foreign lan- 
guage in the primary grades, even with the best of teaching, and 
under the most favorable conditions, is good for nothing except 
as a foundation. For while it is true that children learn quickly 
and easily the rudiments of 'conversation' in a foreign tongue, 
it is also true that they forget them no less cjuickly and easily. 
The children of parents who speak German at home, and expect 
to speak it more or less all their lives, may be taught in the pri- 
mary school to use the language a little more correctly; but if thev 



3 "To the mother tongue, then, all other tongues we acquire are 
merely subsidiary; and not to speak here of the introduction these 
languages give us to other literatures, their chief value in the educa- 
tion of youth is that they help to bring into relief for us the character 
of our own language as a logical medium of thinking, or help us to 
understand it as thought, or to feel it as literary art." — Laurie: Lec- 
tures on Language and Linguistic Method in the School, p. 19. 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION 61 

leave school at the age of twelve or fourteen, they inevitably drop 
back into the speech habits of those with whom they associate, and 
their school training thus becomes, so far as the German lan- 
guage is concerned, a reminiscence of time wasted. The children 
of parents who speak English at home may get a smattering of 
German at school; but if they leave school at the age of twelve 
or fourteen, they soon forget all they have learned."^^ 

In the high- school, foreign language, especially Latin, has 
usually been assig'ned a prominent place in the curriculum. In 
former days, the presence of Latin was doubtless largely due to 
tradition. Today, aside from the disciplinary and liberalizing 
value claimed for foreign language study, French and German 
serve the purpose of preparation for intellectual pursuits, as well 
as a useful acquisition for business and travel. To what extent 
these values can and are realized is open to debate. This is a 
question of educational values. With the change of view on this 
subject and the gradual disappearnce of the theory of formal dis- 
cipline, foreign language will in the future, doubtless, be assigned 
a less prominent place. 

Foreign Language As a Medium of Instruction. 

The control exercised over foreign language instruction by 
the various states in their constitutions and laws is evidently such 
as the interests of the state and local conditions demand. The 
study of language may be considered from two standpoints, as a 
medium of instruction and as a subject of instruction. As' to the 
former, three states^- in their constitutions and fourteen others^^ 
in their laws (also Louisiana, by implication) make it mandatory 
that all instruction shall be in the English language, while two^* 
permit the use of a foreign tongue under certain conditions. 

The statutes of Colorado provide : 

"Whenever the parents or guardians of twenty or more chil- 
dren of school age shall so demand, the board of such school dis- 



11 Report of the Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language 
Association of America, Proceedings N. Ei A., '99, p. 727. . 

12 Ga. art. 8, sec. 1; La. art. 251; Mich. art. XIII, sec. 4. 

13 Ariz., L. '12, p. 32, sec. 73; Cal., K '13, p. 82, sec. 1664; Col., 
L. '14, p. 133, sec. 239; Hawaii, L. '11, p. 11, sec. 29; Ind., L. '11, p. 108, 
sec. 123; Iowa, U. '11, p. 31, sec. 2749; Kan., L. '11, p. 70, sec. 162; Lra., 
Jj. '12, p. 21, sec. 16; Minn., U. '11, p. 57, sec. 148; Mon., L. '11, p 122, sec. 
912; Ohio, L. '12, p. 119, sec. 7729; Okla., L,. '12, p. 17, sec. 44; N. Dak., 
D. '11, p. 34, sec. 93; Tex., L. '13, p. 33, sec. 79; Wis., L. '11, p. 112, sec. 447. 

11 Col., La. 



62 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

trict may procure efficient instructors and introduce the German 
and Spanish languages, or either of them, and gymnastics, as a 
branch of study into such school ; and said district board may up- 
on like demand of the parents and guardians of children of school 
age, procure efficient instructors to teach the branches specified 
in said section fifteen, in the German and Spanish languages, or 
in either of said languages, as, said board may direct."^' 

The branches here referred to are the regular branches of 
the common school course. The Louisiana school code, after 
enumerating the branches of study, stipulates : 

"Provided, that these elementary branches may also be taught 
in the French language in those localities where the French 
language is spoken; but no additional expense shall be incurred 
for this cause. "^^ 

The intention evidently is to make the instruction, as far as 
law can do it, English, in the interests of the individual as well 
as of the state and of the nation. 

Thai this is a question of English as a means of instruction 
rather than a prohibition of a foreign language as a subject of 
study has been tried in the courts and fully established. In Michi- 
gan, one of the states whose constitution rec^uires instruction to 
be in English, the judgment was rendered, in 18 v 4, in the famous 
Kalamazoo case, in which a judicial determination was sought as 
to the right of school authorities to levy taxes upon the general 
public for the support of high schools and for the instruction of 
children in other languages than the English, that there was noth- 
ing, either in the state policy, or in the constitution, or in the 
statutes, restricting the primary school districts of the state in the 
branches of knowledge to be taught, or in the grade of instruc- 
tion to be given, or prevent instruction in the classics and living 
modern languages in these schools, if the voters of the district 
consent in regular form to bear the expense, and raise the taxes 
for this purpose.^' 

While in a few states, in some localities, a foreign tongue 
inay have been used as a means of instruction, such practice was 
but temporary, in the interest of these places inhabited wholly by 
non-English speaking people, and the tendency is to discontinue 



15 Colorado, Sch. L. •14, p. 133, sec. 239. 

16 Louisiana, Sch. L. '12, p. 21, sec. 16. 

17 Stuart V. School Dist. No. 1 of the village of Kalamazoo, 30 
Mich., 69. 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION 63 

such use.^- This view seems furthermore to be borne out by re- 
cent legislation in New ^Mexico. Although the former law speci- 
fically provided for English as the medium of instruction, vet a 
section^^ pertaining- to the qualification of teachers provided : 

"A legally qualified teacher to teach in any school district or 
incorporated town or city shall be one who possesses a certificate 
of attendance upon some county or city normal institute, or sum- 
mer school, or has an approved excuse for non-attendance; and 
in school districts where the only language spoken is Spanish the 
teacher shall haze a knowledge of both Spanish and English." 

The natural inference to be made is that Spanish was to be 
utilized as a means of instruction. A law passed in 1907 re- 
pealed among other sections the one above mentioned.-" 

Foreign Language As a Subject of Study. 

In regard to a foreign language as a subject of study, eleven 
states-^ explicitly permit it, while eighteen^- provide for the ad- 
dition of other subjects not mentioned in the law. While twenty- 
four-^ are silent on this matter, judicial decisions in various states 
have established the principle that a foreign language may form 
a branch of study in the public schools, whether specifically enu- 
merated in the law or not. A recent law of California provides for 
the establishment of a cosmopolitan school in cities of the first 
class. 



IS Information recently furnished me by school authorities of Col., 
La., N. Max., Pa. and Tex. leads to this conclusion. 

19 Sec. 1526, R. S. 1897. 

20 eh. XCVI, Sec. 30, Laws of 1907. 

21 Col., Sch. L. '14, p. 133, sec. 239; Hawaii, Sch. L. '11, p. 11, sec. 
29; Ind., Sch. L. '11, p. 108, sec. 123; Iowa, Sch. L. '11, p. 31, sec. 2749, 
La., Sch. L. '08, p. 103, sec. 212; Mass., Sch. L. '11, p. 17, sec 1; Minn., 
Sch. L. '11, p. 57, sec. 148; Ohio, Sch. L. '12, p. 119, sec. 7729, Ore., Sch. 
L. '11, p. 89, sec. 219; Tex., Sch. L. '09, p. 23, sec. 79; Wis., Sch. L. '11, 
p. 112, sec. 447. 

22Cal., Sch. L. '13, p. 82, sec. 1B66; Conn., Sch. L. '12, p. 17, sec. 40; 
111., Sch. L. '12, p. 55, sec. 179; Kan., Sch. L. '11, p. 70, sec. 162; Me., 
Sch. L. '11, p. 36, sec. 100; Mich., Sch. L., '11, p. 57, sec. 4748; Neb.. 
Sch. L. '11, p. 48, sec. 3; N. H., Sch. L. '11, p. 36, 92; N. C, Sch. L. '11. 
p. 26, sec. 4087; N. Dak., Sch. L. '11, p. 29, sec. 75; Ohio, Sch. L. '12, 
p. 98, siec. 7648; Okla., Sch. L. '12, p. 17, sec. 44; Pa., Sch. L. '13, p. 91, 
siec. 1607; S. C, '12, p. 17, sec. 1731; S. Dak., Sell. L. '11, p. 21, sec. 
81; Tex., Sch. L. '13, p. 32, sec. 78; Va., Sch. L '10, p. 72, sec. 84; Wash., 
Sch. L. '13, p. 49, sec. 89. 

23 Ala., Ariz., Ark., Conn., Del., Fla., Ga., Ida., Ky., Md., Miss., Mo., 
Mon., N. Mex.. Nev., N. H., N. J., N. Y., R. I., Tenn., Utah, Vt, W. Va., 
Wyo. 



64 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

'■'The board of education in every city of the first class shall 
establish and maintain in each of said cities of the first class^ at 
least one publi'c school in which shall be taught the French, Italian 
and German languages, in conjunction with the studies in the 
English language prescribed to be taught by section 1665 of the 
Political Code of the State of California. Such schools shall be 
designated as cosmopoitan schools, and shall be subject to_ such 
rules and regulations as may be prescribed by said boards of edu- 
cation of said cities of the first class wherein said school or schools 
shall be established and maintained."-* 

Judicial Decisions Regarding Foreign Language Instruc- 
tion. 

These decisions are not isolated or confined to one state. 
Thus among others, aside from the Michigan case before referred 
to, establishing the right of the study of the classics and the mod- 
ern languages to a place in the elementary curriculum,-" may be 
mentioned the case of Newman v. Thompson-'^ of Kentucky, in 
1887, an action instituted to restrain the collection of a tax for 
the maintenance of a school giving instruction in the higher 
branches of learning. Although the law of the state is silent re- 
garding foreign language instruction, the judgment was rendered: 

"That Latin and Greek are taught in the school is not in 
violation of the act under which this tax is collected : nor is the 
teaching of such branches of learning in violation of the common 
school law of the state." 

In the case of Powell v. Board of Education, of one of the 
school districts of Illinois, in 1881, brought by a number of tax 
payers against the school board of their district to enjoin alleged 
mis-appropriation of school funds for the study of German, it was 
affirmed that: 

''While the medium of communication must be the English 
language, the teaching of the modern languages is not pro- 
hibited."-' 

In September, 1875, an action of trespass was instituted 
against the directors and principal of the school of one of the 
school districts in Illinois, for expelling a girl from school on ac- 
count of her refusal to study bookkeeping. The court in render- 



24 Cal. School Law, p. 83, sec. 1665a. 

25 p. 62. 

26 Newman v. Thompson, 4 S. W., 341. 

27 Powel V. Board of Education, 97 111., 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION 05 

ing" its decision declared that the school directors had power to 
compel the teaching of other and higher branches than those 
enumerated in the law.-* 

In 1883, an action was brought against the directors of the 
St. Louis Public Schools to restrain the board from expending its 
fimds for the instruction of the high school branches of study. 
The court affirmed that the board of directors has control over 
the school funds unaccompanied by any conditions as to the kind 
of schools which it should maintain or the character and nature 
of the studies which it should prescribe or allow, and that the 
phrase "common schools" meant ''schools open and public to all, 
rather than schools of any definite grade," and that the term 
"common school" "by and of itself does not imply a restriction to 
the rudiments of an education."-^ In McCormick v. Cora Burt, 
in 1883, brought by the former against the latter and the school 
board to recover damages for his suspension from school on ac- 
count of non-observance of a rule of the school, it was held : 

"What rules and regulations will best promote the interests 
of the school under their immediate control, and what branches 
shall be taught, what textbooks shall be used, are matters left to 
the determination of the directors, and must be settled by them 
from the best lights they can obtain from any source, keeping al- 
Vvays in view the highest good of the whole school. "^° 

In July, 1893, there was tried in the Kansas courts a case 
involving the question ^^•hether any power existed in the board of 
education to maintain a high school. The court ruled : 

"What rules and regulations may best promote the interest 
of the schools, and what branches shall be taught, other than 
those expressly prescribed by the statute for all school districts, 
are matters left to the determination of the directors of the 
board.'"3i 

While the welfare of those interested in foreign languages is 
thus guarded, those who are differently inclined are no less cared 
for. Legal decisions seem to assert that while boards of educa- 
tion may frame courses of study, they cannot compel a child to 
study any particular subject. In State v. School District No. 1 



28 Rulison V. Frances Post, 79 111., 567. 

29 Roach V. the Board of President and Dii'ectors of the St. Louis 
Public Schools, 77 Mo., 484. 

30 McCormick v. Cora Burt, 95 111., 263. 

31 Board of El'ducation of the City of Topeka v. R. B. Welch, 51 
Kan., 792. 



66 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

of Dixon County,"- in 1891. a case instituted because of the ex- 
pulsion from school of a girl for her refusal to study grammar, 
the court afifirmed that the parent had a right to make a reason- 
able selection from the prescribed studies for his child to pursue, 
and that this selection must be respected by the trusteess, "as the 
right of the parent in that regard is superior to that of the trustees 
and the teacher." In the case of Rulison v. Post/^'^ before referred 
to, the court further ruled that it was purely optional with par- 
ents and guardians whether the children under their charge 
should study a certain branch. Similarly, in Morrow v. Wood,^^ 
in 1874, where the real point at issue was the right of the teacher 
to compel a pupil to study a particular branch, the Supreme 
Court declared : 

"Certain studies are required to be taught in the public 
schools by statute. The right of one pupil must be so exercised, 
undoubtedl}^, as not to prejudice the equal rights of others. But 
the parent has the right to make a reasonable selection from the 
prescribed studies for his child to pursue and this cannot possibly 
conflict with the equal rights of other pupils." 

Public School Education Must Be English. 

From the foregoing it is thus evident that the education that 
the various states demand is an English""'"' education, and German. 

32 state V. School Dist. No. 1 of Dixon Co., 31 Neb., 552. 

33 Rulison V. Post, 79 IlL, 567. 
34 Morrow V. Wood, 35 Wis., 59. 

3r. "It were vain to deny that true and high culture is within reach 
of him who rightly studies the English language alone, knowing naught 
of any other. More of the fruits of knowledge are deposited in it and 
in its literature than one man can make his own. History affords at 
least one illustrious example, within our own near view, of a people 
that has risen to the loftiest pinnacle of culture with no aid from 
linguistic or philological study: It is the Greek people. The elements, 
the undeveloped germs of the Greek civilization, did indeed come from 
foreign sources; but they did not come through literature; they were 
gained by personal intercourse. To the true Greek, from the beginning 
to the end of Grecian history, every tongue save his own was bar- 
barous, and unworthy of his attention; he learned such, if he learned 
them at all, only for the simplest and most practical ends of com- 
munication with their speakers. No trace of Latin, or Hebrew, or 
Egyptian, or Assyrian, or Sanskrit, or Chinese, was to be found in the 
curriculum of the Athenian student, though dim intimations of val- 
uable knowledge reached by some of those nations, of noble works pro- 
duced ta5^ them, had reached his ear. What the ancient Greek could do, 
let it not be said that the modern speaker of English, with a tongue 
into which have been poured the treasures of all literature and science, 
from every part of the world, and from times far beyond the dawn of 
Grecian history, cannot accomplish." — ^W. D. Whitney: Language and 
Education. N. A. Rev., vol. 113, p. 361. 



FOREIGN LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION 67 

French or Spanish, where permissible, is to be used only as a 
means to this end, and not to acquire a German or French or 
Spanish education. This view is emphasized in the Wisconsin 
school code in the comment on the section permitting the teach- 
ing of any foreign language not to exceed one hour a day to such 
pupils as desire it. 

"The law contemplates instruction, discipline and govern- 
ment of such character as to prepare the young to discharge their 
duties as citizens of a country in which the English language is 
used by the courts, the legislature and the people. To carry out 
this provision of the law, section 449 provides : 'No person shall 
receive any certificate who does not write and speak the English 
language with facility and correctness." Acquaintance with an- 
other language may aid in the instruction of children of foreign 
birth, or parentage, and this section allows one hour a day to be 
given to instruction Jn a foreign language, but the purpose of the 
provision is to limit, not to encourage the study of a foreign lang- 
uage in a common public school. "^"^ 

It is further obvious that whether a foreign language shall 
be a branch of study in any particular school has been left to the 
will of the community in question. It is for the community to 
decide whether the social value, its commercial importance, or the 
hereditary interests of the language in question are such as to 
warrant its place in the school curriculum. If the patrons of the 
school have an interest in the ancient classics, and believe that the 
study of Greek and Latin will put their children into possession 
of the rich literary inheritance of the ancient classics, prepare 
them for the deeper, fuller meaning of the English tongue, it is 
v/ithin their control.''' 



36 W^lsconsin, Sch. L,. Ml, p. 112, Comment on sec. 447. 

37 "In Greece and Rome are the beginnings of nearly all that we 
most value. They are like the twin lakes in which the Nile has its 
origin; the mountain torrents which center in these, to issue in that 
majestic stream, are by comparison hardly worth our attention. Our 
art, science, history, philosophy, poetry — even, as has just been shown, 
our religion — take their start there. There is, as it were, the very 
heart of the great past, whose secrets are unlocked by language. This 
is; the firm and indestructible foundation of the extraordinary impor- 
tance attaching to the study of the classical tongues. Nothing that 
may arise hereafter can interfere with it; Greek and Latin, and the 
antiquity they depict, must continue the sources of knowledge as to 
the beginning of history and be studied as long as liistory is studied." 
— W. D. Whitney: Languages and Education, N. A. Rev., vol. 113, p. 368. 



68 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 



CHAPTER V. 
SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF THE CURRICULUM. 
Physiology and Hygiene. 

Of all the subjects in the school curricula, no other has re- 
ceived SO much attention in recent years as that of physiology and 
hygiene, with special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks 
and narcotics upon the human system. The evil effects of intem- 
perance are so apparent and so widespread that its control is ad- 
mittedly a necessity. About thirty years ago, the idea was con- 
ceived of mitigating the evil through the agency of the schools. 
It was believed that the best remedy for the drink habit would be 
found in teaching the children in the schools that alcohol is a 
poison. Largely through the instrumentality of the Woman's 
Christian Temperance Union^ it was urged upon law-makers 
everywhere, both in state and nation, with the result that this sub- 
ject is required to be taught today throughout the length and 
breadth of the land. Not only is its teaching mandatory in all the 
]:>ublic schools of the states (except Oklahoma) by statute re- 
quirement, but also in the territories by federal enactment. 

"That the nature of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and special 
instruction as to their effects upon the human system in connec- 
tion with the several divisions of the subject of physiology and 
hygiene shall be included in the branches of study taught in the 
common and public schools, and the Military and Naval Schools, 
and shall be studied and taught as thoroughly and in the same 
manner as other like required branches are in said schools, by the 
use of text-books in the hands of pupils, where other branches are 
thus studied in said schools, and by all pupils in all said schools 
throughout the Territories, in the Military and Naval Academies 
of the United States, and in the District of Columbia, and in all 
Indian and colored schools in the Territories of the United States. 
That it shall be the duty of the proper officers in control of any 
school described in the foregoing section to enforce the provisions 



1 Foster, Mi's. J. Ellen: Scientific Temperance Instruction in the 
Public Schools. Proceedings of the N. E. A., 1886, p. 77. 



SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF CURRICLUUM 69 

of this act; and any such officer, school director, committee, su- 
perintendent or teacher who shall refuse or neglect to compl}^ with 
the requirements of this act or shall neglect or fail to make proper 
provisions for the instruction required, and in the manner speci- 
field by the first section of the act, for all pupils in each and 
every school under his jurisdiction, shall be removed from office 
and the vacancy filled as in other cases. 

"That no certificate shall be granted to any person to teach 
in the public schools of the District of Columbia or Territories, 
after the first day of January, Anno Domini, eighteen hundred 
and eighty-eight, who has not passed a satisfactory examination 
in physiology and hygiene, wdth special reference to the nature 
and the effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics upon the 
human system. '"- 

In Alabama, Arizona,"^ Colorado, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, 
Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan. 
New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North 
Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, 
A^irginia, and West Virginia, the law requires that it be taught in 
the^ same manner and as thoroughly as other subjects. It is re- 
quired of all the pupils in all the public schools in Alabama, Ari- 
zona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, 
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland (of all the 
pupils whose capacity will admit it), Massachusetts, Michigan, 
New Hampshire (above primary). New Jersey, New Mexico, 
(3hio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, West 
Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming (above primary). In Arizona, 
Colorado, Delaware, Illinois, Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey, 
New Mexico, New York, Oregon, South Dakota, Virginia, it 
must be taught by means of textbooks on the subjects, and in 
Illinois, Michigan and South Dakota, it is further stipulated that 
the minimum amount of space that the textbook must devote to 
the nature of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics. Illinois, New 
York and Oregon prescribe the minimum number of lessons per 
week in this subject, and in New York and Ohio it is further 
mandatory that pupils be examined and tested in this subject be- 
fore promotion. In ten of the states,^ the county or city superin- 



2 Act of May 20, 1S86, Ch. 362, 24 Stat. Federal Statutes 2, p. 86L 
s For code reference, see appendix. 

* In Arizona this is effected through the State Board of Education 
which has the authority to prescribe and enforce a course of study. 
i Ark., Ga., Iowa, Mich., Minn., N. Y., Ore., Pa., So. Dak., Wyo 



70 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

tendent must report to the State Superintendent to what extent 
the statute has been compHed with, and twenty states further 
mention the penalty for violation of the law in question.^ Illinois 
requires : 

"The nature of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics and 
their effects on the human system shaU be taught in connection 
with the various divisions of physiology and hygiene as thoroughly 
as are other branches in all schools under state control, or sup- 
ported wholly or in part by public money, and also in all schools 
connected with reformatory institutions. All pupils in the above 
mentioned schools, below the second year of the high school and 
above the third year of school work, computing from the begin- 
nJng of the lowest primary year, or in corresponding classes of 
ungraded schools, shall be tauglit and shall study this subject 
every year from suitable textbooks in the hands of all pupils, for 
not less than four lessons a week for ten or more weeks each 
year, and must pass the same tests in this as in other studies. In 
all schools above mentioned, all pupils in the lowest three primary 
school years, or in corresponding classes in ungraded schools, 
shall each year be instructed in this subject orally for not less than 
three lessons a week for ten weeks each year, by teachers using 
textbooks adapted for such oral instruction as a guide and stand- 
ard. The local school authorities shall provide needed facilities 
and definite time and place for this branch in the regular courses 
of study. The textbooks in the pupils' hands shall be graded to 
the capacity of the fourth year, intermediate, grammar and high 
school pupils, or to corresponding classes as found in ungraded 
schools. For students below high school grade, such textbooks 
shall give at least one-fifth their space, and for students of high 
school grade shall give not less than twenty pages to the nature 
and effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics. The pages 
on this subject, in a separate chapter at the end of the book, shall 
not be counted in determining the minimum."" 

Ohio, while aiming to secure the same end, leaves more to 
local consideration. 

"The nature of alcohoUc drinks and other narcotics, and their 
effect on the human S3^stem, in connection with the various divi- 
sions of physiology and hygiene, shall be included in the branches 
to be regularly taught in the common schools of the state, and in 
all educational institutions supported wholly, or in part, by money 
from the state. Boards of education, and boards of such educa- 
tional institutions, shall make suitable provisions for this instruc- 



n Ariz., Cal., Conn., Del., Ida., 111., Ind., Iowa, Mich., Minn., N. H., 
N. J.. N. Mex., N. Y.. Ohio, Pa., So. Dak., Wash., W. Va., Wyo. 
School Law of Illinois, 1912, p. 76, sec. 273. 



SPECIAL ELEMENTS OE CURRICULUM 71 

tion in the schools and institutions under their respective juris- 
diction, giving- definite time and place for this branch in the regu- 
lar course of study; adopt such methods as will adapt it to the 
capacity of pupils in the various grades ; and to corresponding 
classes as found in ungraded schools. The same tests for promo- 
tion shall be recjuired in this as in other branches."' 

The Michigan statute on this subject is rather remarkable 
for the attention that is given to textbook consideration. The 
law in full is as follows : 

"In addition to the branches in which instruction is now re- 
quired by law to be given in the public schools of the state, in- 
struction shall be given in physiology and hygiene, with a special 
reference to the nature of alcohol and narcotics, and their efifects 
upon the human system. Such instruction shall be given by the 
aid of textbooks, in the case of pupils who are able to read, and 
as thoroughly as in other studies pursued in the same school. The 
textbooks to be used for such instruction shall give at least one- 
fourth of their space to the consideration of the nature and ef- 
fects of alcoholic drinks and narcotics, and the books used in the 
highest grade of graded schools shall contain at least twenty 
pages of matter relating to this subject. Textbooks used in giv- 
ing the foregoing instructions shall first be approved by the state 
board of education. Each school board making a selection of 
textbooks under the provisions of this act shall make a record 
thereof in their proceedings, and textbooks once adopted under 
the provisions of this act shall not be changed within five years, 
except by the consent of a majority of the qualified voters of the 
district present at an annual meeting, or at a special meeting- 
called for that purpose. The district board shall require each 
teacher in the public schools of such district, before placing the 
school register in the hands of the directors (director), as pro- 
vided in section thirteen of this act, to certify therein whether or 
not instruction has been given in the school or grade presided 
over b}^ such teacher, as required by this act, and it shah be the 
duty of the director of the district to file with the township clerk 
a certified copy of such certificate. Any school board neglecting 
or refusing to comply with any of the provisions of this act shall 
be subject to fine or forfeiture, the same as for neglect of any 
other duty pertaining to their office. This section shall apply to 
all schools in the state, including schools in cities or villages, 
whether incorporated under special charter or under the general 
laws."® 



7 Ohio School Laws, 1912. p. US, sees. 7723. 7724. 

8 Michigan General School Laws, 1911, p. 29, sec. 4680. 



72 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

In Oregon, the reception of public money by the treasurer is 
conditional on the proper enforcement of the law regarding the 
teaching of physiology and hygiene. The law requires of the 
teacher : 

"To labor during school hours to advance the pupils in their 
studies: to create in their minds a desire for knowledge, princi- 
ple, morality, politeness, cleanliness, and the preservation of 
physical health ; and it is hereby made the duty of every teacher to 
give, and of every board of school directors to cause to be given, 
to all pupils, suitable instruction in physiology and hygiene, with 
special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and 
narcotics upon the human system. Such instruction in physiology 
and hygiene shall be given orally to pupils who are below the 
fourth grade, and shall be given by the use of textbooks to all 
pupils above the fourth grade, and such instruction shall be given 
as thoroughly to all pupils as instruction in arithmetic or geog- 
raphy is given. Each teacher of a public school, before leaving 
the school register with the school clerk, shall certify therein 
whether instruction has been given in the school or grade presided 
over by such teacher, as required by this act, and no public money 
shall be paid over to the treasurer of a district unless the regis- 
ter of such district contains a certificate of the teacher that in- 
struction has been given in physiology and hygiene, with special 
reference to the efifects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants and narco- 
tics upon the human system, as required by this act."" 

The law of the state of New York, however, is more com- 
prehensive than any other : 

"The nature of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics, and 
their effects on the human system, shall be taught in connection 
with the various divisions of physiology and hygiene, as thor- 
oughly as are other branches in all schools under state control 
or supported wholly or in part by public money of the state, and 
also in all schools connected with reformatory institutions. All 
pupils in the above mentioned schools, below the second year of 
the high school and above the third year of school work, comput- 
ing from the beginning of the lowest primary, not kindergarten 
year, or in corresponding classes of ungraded schools, shall be 
taught and shall study this subject every year with suitable text- 
books in the hands of all pupils, for not less than three lessons a 
^veek for ten or more weeks, or the equivalent of the same in each 
year, and must pass satisfactory tests in this as in other studies, 
before promotion to the next succeeding year's work ; except that 
where there are nine or more school years below the high school. 



School I^aws of Oregon. 1913. p. 51, sec. 98. 



SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM 73 

the study may be omitted in all years above the eighth year and 
below the high school, by such pupils as .have passed the required 
tests of the eighth year. In all schools above mentioned, all pupils 
in the lowest three primary, not kindergarten, school years, or in 
corresponding classes in ungraded schools, shall, each year, be in- 
structed in this subject orally for not less than two lessons a week 
for ten weeks, or the equivalent of the same in each year, by 
teachers using textbooks adapted for such oral instruction as a 
guide and standard, and such pupils must pass such tests in this 
as may be recjuired in other studies before promotion tO' the next 
succeeding year's work. Nothing in this act shall be construed 
as prohibitmg or requiring the teaching of this subject in kinder- 
garten schools. The local school authorities shall provide needed 
facilities and definite time and place for this branch in the regular 
courses of study. The textbooks in the pupils' hands shall be 
graded to the capacities of fourth year, intermediate, grammar 
and high school pupils, or to corresponding classes in ungraded 
schools. For students below high school grade, such textbooks 
shall give at least one-fifth their space, and for students of high 
school grade shall give not less than twenty pages, to the nature 
jiud effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics. This subject 
must be treated in the textbooks in connection with the various 
divisions of physiology and hygiene, and pages on this subject in 
a separate chapter at the end of the book shall not be counted in 
determining the minimum. No textbook on physiology not con- 
forming to this act shall be used in the public schools, except so 
long as may be necessary to fulfill the conditions of any legal 
adoption existing at the time of the passage of this act. All Re- 
gents' examinations in physiology and hygiene shall include a due 
proportion of questions on the nature of alcoholic drinks and other 
narcotics, and their effects on the human system. 

'Tn all normal schools, teachers' training classes and teachers' 
institutes, adequate time and attention shall be given to instruction 
in the best methods of teaching this branch, and no teacher shall 
be licensed who has not passed a satisfactory examination in the 
subject, and the best methods of teaching it. On satisfactory 
evidence that any teacher has wilfully refused to teach this sub- 
ject, as provided in this article, the commissioner of education 
shall revoke the license of, such teacher. No public money of the 
>tate shall be apportioned by the commissioner of education or 
paid for the benefit of any city until the superintendent of schools 
therein shall have filed with the treasurer or chamberlain of such 
city an affidavit and with the commissioner of education a dupli- 
cate of such affidavit that he has made thorough investigation as 
to the facts, and that to the best of his knowledge, information 
and belief, all provisions of this act have been complied with in 
all the schools under his supervision in such city during the last 



74 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

preceding legal school year ; nor shall any public money of the 
state be apportioned by the commissioners of education or by 
school commissioners or paid for the benefit of any school district, 
until the president of the board of trustees, or in the case of com- 
mon school districts the trustee or some one member of the board 
of trustees, shall have filed with the school commissioner having 
jurisdiction an affidavit that he has made thorough investigation 
as to the facts, and that to the best of his knowledge, information 
and belief, all the provisions of this act have been complied with 
in such district, which affidavit shall be included in the trustees' 
annual report, and it shall be the duty of every school commis- 
sioner to file with the commissioner of education, an affidavit in 
connection with his annual report, showing all districts in his jur- 
isdiction that have and those that have not complied with all the 
provisions of this act, according to the best of his knowledge, in- 
formation and belief, based on a thorough investigation by him 
as to the facts ; nor shall any public money of the state be appor- 
tioned or paid for the benefit of any teachers' training class, 
teachers' institute, or other school mentioned herein, until the of- 
ficer having jurisdiction or supervision thereof shall have filed 
with the commissioner of education an affidavit that he has made 
a thorough investigation as to the facts, and that to the best of 
his knowledge, information and belief, all the provisions of this 
act relative thereto have been complied with. The principal of 
each normal school in the state shall, at the close of the school 
year, file with the commissioner of education an affidavit that all 
the provisions of this law, applicable thereto, have been complied 
with during the school year just terminated, and until such affi- 
davit shall be filed no warrant shall be issued by the commissioner 
of education for the payment by the treasurer of any part of the 
money appropriated for such school. It shall be the duty of the 
commissioner of education to provide blank forms of affidavit re- 
quired herein for use by the local school officers, and he shall in- 
clude in his annual report a statement showing every school, city, 
or district which has failed to comply with all the provisions of 
this act during the preceding school year. On complaint, by ap- 
peal to the commissioner of education, any patron of the schools 
mentioned in the last preceding section, or by anv citizen, that 
any provision of this act has not been complied with in any city 
or district, the commissioner of education shall make immediate 
investigation, and on satisfactory evidence of the truth of such 
complaint, shall thereupon and thereafter withhold all public 
money of the state to which such city or district would otherwise 
be entitled, until all the provisions of this act shall be complied 
with in said city or district, and shall exercise his power of 



SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM 75 

reclamation and deduction, under section four hundred and 
ninety-one of this chapter."^" 

The special session of the legislature of Alabama, in 1909, 
passed an act which requires : 

"That it shall be the duty of the State Superintendent of 
Education of the State of Alabama to have prepared and fur- 
nished to the teachers in the public schools placards printed in 
large type upon which shall be set forth in attractive style, statis- 
tics, epigrams and mottoes showing the evils of intemperance, 
especially from the use of intoxicating liquors. That it shall be 
the duty of the said State Superintendent of Education to make 
changes in the matter printed on the said placards from time to 
time, as he may deem proper, and that he shall at all times keep 
the public schools of Alabama provided with a sufficient number 
of said placards to post one of them in every schoolroom of Ala- 
bama." 

The law makes it the duty of every public school teacher to 
keep posted one of said placards in a conspicuous place in his 
schoolroom. It makes it the duty of the county superintendent 
and district trustees to assist in the carrying out of the provisions 
of this act. One day shall be set apart in each "scholastic term," 
known as "Temperance Day, when a suitable program shall be 
prepared to the end that the children of Alabama may be taught 
the evils of intemperance."^^ 

- Though legislation on this subject is thus extensive, the law- 
does not receive that loyal and unanimous enforcement that might 
be expected from its universality. Among the official decisions of 
ihe State Superintendent of Nebraska is found what is indicative 
of the attitude in many localities : 

"The instruction in this subject is often unwisely distributed 
throughout the course, and any change of sentiment or opinion 
against the use of alcohol seems entirely disproportionate to the 
outlay of time and effort that has been made. There is frequent 
and unnecessary repetition, and diminished interest and dislike 
of the subjects are prevalent. Textbook instruction could, with 
profit to the cause and to the school, be limited to the higher gram- 
mar grades. The use of charts in common schools, showing mor- 
bid, physiological conditions is generally condemned. "^- 

However meritorious the temperance movement, however 
laudable the self-sacrificing devotion of many of its leaders, how- 

10 Elducation Law, 1912, p. 142, art. 26. 

11 Laws of Alabama, 1911, p. 132. 

12 School Laws of Nebraska, 1909, p. 72, sec. 4. 



76 . STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

ever praiseworthy the motives actuating its members, it may well 
be questioned whether the purpose of this scientific temperance 
teaching is being accompHshed. Not to speak of palpable inac- 
curacies, and even falsehoods, contained ni many texts on this 
subject and often taught in the face of obvious and disproving 
facts, the method is, to say the least, unpedagogical. Xo such 
method is pursued in other subjects. Children do not become 
good spellers b}' the study of misspelled words, nor do they ac- 
quire facility in the use of good English through attention to 
faulty diction. Children are not expected to gain physical health 
and strength through the study of sickness and disease, nor is it 
expected that they become virtuous through presentation of vice. 
The wisdom of presenting lurid pictures of the evil effects of al- 
cohol on stomach, heart and liver and other vital organs is open 
to very serious question. Any method in this day of neurasthenic 
ailments that may lead to morbidness on the part of the learner 
should be condemned. What is desired in the young is the form- 
ing of right habits of life, which can only be acquired through 
positive reaction. No amount of learning regarding the evil ef- 
fects of alcohol will form a positive character, nor will any store 
of memorized negations serve in the hour of temptation. In ac- 
cordance with the law of negative suggestions, this teaching may 
lead to the doing of the very evil it is intended to forestall, es- 
l)ecially when carried on in an environment not in harmony with 
such teaching, but where alcoholic beverages are dispensed with 
the full approval of local law. Whatever may be the modifica- 
tions that the la^y will in the future undergo in respect to this 
subject, if the school is to have a part in the cause of temperance, 
it will have to become a place for character building, for the form- 
ing of right habits ; a place where temperance is lived, not merely 
learned in words. It should be noted also that in the teaching of 
this subject, as well as those considered farther on in this chap- 
ter, the public school is made the agency for imposing new in- 
formation and new ideals upon the people, and such teaching is 
thus open to criticism on the ground of what should be the nature 
of the course of study. If the course of study is to be a body of 
race experience.^" i. e., consist of a selection of those achievements 
and experiences of the human race which have proved and are 

13 Ruediger: The Principles of Education, p. 167. 



SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM 77 

Still proving- of value for social and individual life, as is com- 
monly conceded, it evidently follows that much which is now ex- 
pected to be taught under these various captions must be omitted. 

Patriotism. 

Another subject receiving considerable attention, though not 
literally forming any integral part of the school curriculum, is 
jjatriotism. One of the acknowledged aims of education is citi- 
zenship, which mu.st embody as one of its vital elements that of 
patriotism. The true patriot is not so much he who is willing to 
die, as he who lives, for his country. The true citizen must fight 
his country's battle of peace, as well as of war, and in so doing 
further the end of government which is for the interests of hu- 
manity. 

It is held by many that the training received in history and 
civil government does not give due preparation for the civil duties 
of life which the individual must later assume in the interests of 
society as well as the state. For this reason there have been intro- 
duced into many schools various exercises which have for their 
special end the teaching of patriotism. 

In thirty-two states^* the law requires that the public schools 
be provided with suitable flags, which shall be displayed while 
school is in session, or only on certain days, which is the case in 
Idaho, Illinois. Indiana, Massachusetts and New Hampshire. 
The law in ]\Iaine and in Wisconsin is not definite as to the time 
of display ; in the latter it merely rec^uires that it be displayed, in 
the former it indicates the purpose for which it shall be used. 

"It shall be the duty of superintendents of schools to report 
to municipal officers of cities, towns and plantations, all schools 
within their jurisdiction without flags, and it shall be the duty of 
said municipal officers to furnish flags to all such schools, to be 
paid for by said municipalities. These flags are to be used in all 
schools for the education of the youth of our state, to teach them 
the cost, the object and principles of our government, the great 
sacrifices of our forefathers, the important part taken b}- the 
Union army in eighteen hundred sixty-one to eighteen hundred 
sixty-five, and to teach them to love, honor and respect the flag 



14 Ariz., Cal., CoL, Conin., D'eL, Ida., III., Ind., Iowa, Kan., Me., 
Mass., Mich., Mont, Nev., N. H., N. J., N. Mex., N. Y., N. Dak.. Ohio, 
Okla., Ore., Pa., R. I., So. Dak., Utah, Vt. Wash., W. Va., Wis., Wyo. 



78 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

of our country, that cost so much and is so dear to every true 
American citizen. "^"^ 

New Hampshire leaves the display of the flag to the judg- 
ment of the school board. It directs the board : 

To "'purchase at the expense of the city or town in which the 
district is situated, a United States flag of bunting, not less than 
five feet in length, with a flagstafif and appliances for displaying 
the same, for every schoolhouse in the district in which a public 
school is taught not otherwise supplied. They shall prescribe 
rules and regulations for the proper custody, care, and display of 
the flag; and whenever not otherwise displayed, it shall be placed 
conspicuously in the principal room of the schoolhouse. Any 
members of a school board who shall refuse or neglect to comply 
with the provisions of this section shall be fined ten dollars for 
the first oflfense and twenty dollars for every subsequent of- 
fense."i« 

According to the law in Wisconsin, the flag may be displayed 
from the schoolhouse or flagstafif, or in each schoolroom : 

"Every board of education or district board shall purchase 
at the expense of the city, town, village or district to which it be- 
longs and display in each schoolroom or from a flagstafif on each 
schoolhouse or on the grounds thereof, a flag of the United States, 
and purchase in like manner whatever may be needed, for the dis- 
pla}^ or preservation of the flag."^^ 

Connecticut, Hawaii, New Mexico, New York and Rhode 
Island, have established a flag day, which must be observed in the 
schools with appropriate patriotic exercises. Three of the states 
provide for a salute to the flag. Thus the Arizona law requires : 

"It shall be the duty of the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction to prepare for the use of the public schools of the state 
a program providing for a salute to the flag, and such other pa- 
triotic exercises as shall be deemed by him to be expedient, under 
such regulations and instructions as may best meet the require- 
ments of the different grades of such schools."^* 

In Kansas the law directs the State Superintendent to make 
proper provisions for this : 

"It shall be the duty of the State Superintendent of Public 
Instruction of this state to prepare for the use of the public 
schools of the state a program providing for a salute to the flag 
at the opening of each day of school, and such other patriotic ex- 

in Maine School Liaws, '13, p. 57, sec. 1. 

16 New Hampshire Sch. L., '13, p. 31, sec. 928. 

i7V^isconsin S'ch. L,., '11, p. 94, sec. 436a. 

38 Arizona School Laws, 1912, p. 48, sec. 118. 



SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM 79 

ercises as ma}^ be deemed by him to be expedient, under such 
regulations and instructions as may best meet the varied require- 
ments of the different grades in such schools. "^^ 

Similarly this is made the duty of the Commissioner of Edu- 
cation of New York, 

"It shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Education to 
prepare, for the use of the public schools of the state, a program 
providing for a salute to the flag and such other patriotic 
exercises as may be deemed by him to be expedient, under such 
regulations and instructions as may best meet the varied require- 
ments of the different grades in such schools. "-'' 

A recent law of Indiana, approved March 8, 1909, demands : 

"The state board of education shall require the singing of 
the 'Star Spangled Banner' in its entirety in the schools of In- 
diana upon all patriotic occasions, and that the said board of edu- 
cation shall arrange to supply the words and music in sufficient 
quantity for the purposes indicated therein. "-'^ 

Eleven-- of the states require the proper observance with ap- 
propriate exercises of certain days commemorating important his- 
torical characters or events. Thus Arkansas requires : 

"That the nineteenth of January, the birthday of Robert Ed- 
ward Lee, shall be observed in all the public schools of the state 
as a day for patriotic exercises and the study of the history and 
achievements of Arkansas men. The State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction is hereby authorized to prepare and publish 
annually for use in all public schools of the state, a program of 
exercises dealing with events in the life of General Lee and other 
distinguished men, giving attention also to the achievements and 
work of eminent men who have served this state in civil and mili- 
tary life. It shall be the duty of county examiners, city superin- 
tendents and principals of schools to aid in carrying on this work, 
and they shall arrange the exercises of their various schools in 
accordance with the provisions of this act."-^ 

The law in New York declares : 

"It shall also be his duty (i. e.. of the Commissioner of Edu- 
cation) to make special provision for the observance in such pub- 
lic schools of Lincoln's birthday, Washington's birthday. Mem- 
orial day, and Flag day, and such other legal holidays of like 
character as may be hereafter designated by law."^* 

19 Kansas School Laws, 1913, p. 170, sec. 507. 

20 New York Education Law, 1912, p. 146, sec. 712. 

21 Indiana iSchool Law, 1911, p. 117, sec. 147%. 

22 Ariz., Ark., Conn., Kan., Md., Mass., N. H., N. J., N. Y., R. I., VL 

23 Arkansas School Laws, 1910. p. 123, sec. 1, 2, 3. 

24 New York Education Law, 1912, p. 146. sec. 712. 



80 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

As to the value of these exercises Dr. Armstrong-, of the 
Mosely Commission, said, in 1903 : 

"Much has been said of the importance attached in the Amer- 
ican schools to the teaching of patriotism and to the practice of 
saluting the flag which prevails therein. This involves the recita- 
tion occasionally of the formula: T pledge allegiance to my flag 
and to the Republic for which it stands— one nation, indivisible, 
with liberty and justice for all.' This appeared to me to be a 
somewhat perfunctory exercise when I witnessed it. Thinking- 
Americans with whom I discussed the question seemed to regard 
the practice as of some value in cities Uke New York and 
Chicago, where a large alien element has constantly to be ab- 
sorbed into the population ; but apparently they were of the opin- 
ion that it was undesirable as a general practice.'"-'' 

Doctor Dunker, of the Royal Prussian Commission, in 1904, 
spoke of it in these terms : 

"The national character of the American school is further in- 
dicated by the widely diffused custom, in many instances fixed 
by state law, of hoisting the flag of the Union over public school 
buildings during periods of instruction. It is especially signifi- 
cant that certain Southern states that heretofore had not forgot- 
ten the civil war and the evil days of reconstruction, under the 
direct influence of the victory over Spain, began to hoist the 
Stars and Stripes over their schools instead of the State flag."-''' 

Later on he refers to this again in these words : 

"The American schools are pronouncedly national educa- 
tional institutions. This, as already mentioned, is even externally 
indicated by the fact that public instructon is imparted under the 
shadow of the national flag. The great national anniversaries of 
the Declaration of Independence, of the birth of Washington and 
Lincoln, are celebrated with suspension of school exercises and 
with school festivals. The geography and history of the L^nited 
States are thoroughly studied in all kinds of schools, so that the 
pupil may learn to know and love his people and its heroes and 
become familiar with his country."-' 

Arbor Day. * 

Another school exercise, though not strictly a part of the 
school curriculum, should be referred to in this connection. For 
some years, those interested in forestry, seeing the rapid destruc- 
tion of the forests of the country and the dangers resulting there- 



s.T Report of the M'osely Ed. Com. to the U. S. of Am., p. 9. 

26 State School Systems. Bulletin No 2, 1906, p. 10. 

27 State School Systems, Bulletin No. 2, 190G, p. 12. 



SPECIAL ELEMENTS OE CURRICULUM 81 

from, have urged the need of forest reservation and tree plant- 
ing. It was not, however, until 1872, largely through the efforts 
of J. Sterling Morton, of Nebraska, that the first systematic tree 
planting on a given day by organized efforts of schools and citi- 
zens began. This movement has been followed by other states, 
until today Arbor Day is being observed in most of the schools 
of the country. In thirty-three of the states and the territory of 
Hawaii-'^ the law reqjLiires this observance. Though in some 
states the intention is largely to improve the attractiveness of the 
school and its immediate surroundings, in others it is to reach the 
vv-ider interests of forestry and nature in general. The immed- 
iate result has been to change many a dreary, cheerless school sur- 
rounding, into one of attractiveness and even beauty. The law 
of Arizona is illustrative of the eft'ort to reach these wider prob- 
lems as well : 

"In order that the children in our public schools shall assist 
in the work of adorning the school grounds with trees, and to 
stimulate the minds of children towards the benefits of the preser- 
vation and perpetuation of our forests and the growing of tim- 
ber, it shall be the duty of the authorities in every public school 
in the Territory of Arizona to assemble the pupils in their charge 
on the above day in the school building or elsewhere, as they may 
deem proper, and to provide for and conduct, under the general 
supervision of the County School Superintendents, to have and 
tO' hold such exercises as shall tend to encourage the planting, 
protection and preservation of trees and shrubs, and an acquaint- 
ance with the best methods to be adopted to accomplish such re- 
sults ; and that the trees may be planted around the school build- 
ings, and that the grounds around such buildings may be im- 
proved and beautified ; such planting to be attended with appro- 
priate and attractive ceremonies, that the day may be one of 
j)leasure as well as one of instruction for the young; all to be un- 
der the supervision and direction of the teacher, who shall see that 
the trees and shrubs are properly selected and set."-^ 

Bird Day. 

In a number of the states, through the interest aroused in 
birds and their preservation by the Audobon Society, bird day is 



28 Ariz., Ark., Cal., CoL, Conn., DeL, Fla., Ga-, Hawaii, Ida., 111., 
Ind., La., Me., Mass., Md., iMich., Miss., Mo., Mon., Nev., N. J.. N. Mex., 
N. Y., Ohio, Okla., Ore., R. I., S. C, Tenn., Tex., Va., Wis., Wyo. 

20 Arizona School Laws, 1912, p. 47, sec. 113. 



82 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

observed as well, either in connection with arbor day or as a 
separate day. Thus the law in Louisiana requires : 

"The State and Parish Boards of Public Education are di- 
rected to provide for the celebration, by all public schools, of 
'Bird Day.' on May fifth of each year, being the anniversary of 
The birth of John James Audobon. the distinguished son of Loui- 
siana. On the recurring anniversary days, suitable exercises are 
to be engaged in, and lessons on the economic and esthetic value 
of the resident and migratory birds of the state are to be taught 
by the teachers to their pupils. "^'^' 

Humane Education. 

Closely allied to this is humane education, i. e., the teaching 
of kind treatment of animals, which is required by law in four- 
teen of the states."^ and in Hawaii. The law in South Dakota 
requires : 

"There shall be taught in the public schools of this state, in 
addition to other branches of study as now prescribed, a system 
of humane treatment tO' animals. Each school supported wholly 
or in part by the public funds of this state, in any county or city 
thereof, shall instruct all scholars in the laws of this state as em- 
bodied in the penal code, or other laws pertaining to the humane 
treatment of animals, and in such studies on the subject as the 
board of education having supervision thereof may adopt, such in- 
struction to consist of not less than one lesson of ten minutes each 
during each week of the school year. But no experiment upon 
live animals to demonstrate facts in physiology shall be permitted 
in any school in this state. "^- 

Similarly North Dakota requires : 

"There shall be taught in the public schools of North Dakota, 
in addition to the other branches of study now prescribed, instruc- 
tion in the humane treatment of animals ; such instruction shall be 
oral and to consist of not less than two lessons of ten minutes 
each per week."^"' 

In this connection, reference should be made to the important 
movement to teach in the public schools, laws of sanitation and 
the nature of communicable diseases and their prevention. The 
^Massachusetts law provides for special instruction in tuberculosis 
and its prevention. Michigan requires that the methods of pre- 



30 Louisiana School Laws, 1912, p. 64, sec. 14. 

31 Cal., Col., Del., 111., Mich., N. H., No. Dak., Okla., Pa., So. Dak., 
Tex., Wash., Wis., Wyo. 

32 South Dakota School Laws, 1911, p. 41. sec. 144. 

33 North Dakota School Laws, 1911, p. 85, sec. 272. 



SPECIAL ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM 83 

vention and restriction of communicable diseases be taught. 
Montana, in 1909. provided for the teaching, each year, of the 
modes by which communicable diseases spread and the method of 
their restriction and prevention. Utah, in 1907, enacted: 

"There shall be established in the normal schools of the 
state, and in the public schools, beginning with the eighth grade, 
a course of instruction upon the subject of sanitation, and the 
cause and prevention of disease. It shall be the duty of the State 
Board of Education and the State Board of Health, acting con- 
jointly, to prepare a course of study to carry out the provisions 
of this act.'^'^"^ 

In the Amendments to School Law of New Jersey, 1913 and 
1913. is found the following: 

"It shall be the duty of each teacher in any public school in 
(he State of New Jersey to devote not less than thirty minutes in" 
each month to instructing the pupils thereof as to ways and means 
of preventing accidents." 

It is made the duty of the Commissioner of Education and 
the Commissioner of Labor to prepare a suitable book for such 
instruction. 

A recent law in Indiana regarding the teaching of hygiene 
in schools contains the following provision : 

"And it shall be the duty of the trustees of the several town- 
ships and the boards of school trustees of the several cities and 
towns in the state, to make provisions in the public schools under 
their jurisdicton for the illustrative teaching of the anatomy, 
physiology and hygiene of the human system ; the effects of alco- 
hol and nicotine ; the cause and course of consumption ; the dis- 
semination of diseases by rats, flies, and mosquitoes, and the ef- 
fects thereof, and the prevention of diseases by the proper selec- 
tion and consumption of food." 

The General Assembly of Ohio, in 1913, passed a similar law 
to that of New Jersey above quoted. 

All of the subjects before discussed, forcibly illustrate the cen- 
tralizing tendency in' education. Within a quarter of a century 
were enacted the laws requiring the teaching of the effects of al- 
coholic drinks and narcotics on the human system. In Vermont, 
in 1882, was passed the first law on this subject in this country. 
Today it is compulsory throughout the union. Less than forty 
years ago, were taken the first steps in regard to the observance 



34LTtah School Daw, '].3, p. 33, sec. 1829x. 



84 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

of arbor day. Today it is generally observed throughout the 
United States. In the year 1907 alone, seven states passed laws 
pertaining to the display of the United States flag, a movement 
indicative of the general effort on the part of the states to make 
of the public school an institution for the training of loyal patri- 
otic citizens. Thus more and more, slow^ly in some lines, more 
rapidly in others, the state is assuming control of the public 
schools, directing not only the subjects of study, but what shall 
be taught in these subjects. 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 85 



CHAPTER VI. 
MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. 
The Demand for Moral Training. 

Whatever may be the view held as to the means and method 
of moral education, its need is universally admitted. Many and 
complex are the problems requiring solution. Labor and industry 
are becoming so diversified, society so complex and interrelated 
that the moral choice of the individual is attaining an ever wider 
and more far-reaching effect. While the decrease of illiteracy 
and the wonderful achievements in science and art are unmistak- 
able evidence of intellectual advance, evidence seems to be lacking 
for a corresponding growth in morality. Indeed, many see in the 
evils and crimes of the social, political, and economic world, indis- 
putable proofs of moral decline. 

. In the early colonial days, as has been seen,^ churches and 
schools were intimately related, and the latter were dominated by 
religious control as well as instruction. Even when the separa- 
tion of church and state had become an acknowledged principle of 
American polity, religious instruction was still looked upon as an 
essential part of the curriculum. The Ordinance of 1787 con- 
tained these words : 

"Religion, morality and knowledge being necessary for good 
government, schools and the means of education shall forever be 
encouraged." 

Several states incorporated this declaration into their con- 
stitutions. In time, however, a new order of things set in. With 
the growth of a spirit of democracy which chafed under religious 
authority and leadership, with the influx of foreigners of all 
creeds and kinds, with the increasing control of the state over 
public education, the public schools have become more and morr.: 



1 Chapter I, p. 12. 



86 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

secular, and religious teaching- has disappeared from the school. 
It is believed that moral training can no longer be left wholly to 
the home and the church, but that the public school must do its 
part in the building of character in which rests the real strength 
of society and the state. It is held by some that the teaching of 
the usual branches of study does not result in ethical development, 
and that it is necessary to supplement this by some scheme of 
formal training in morals. Thus it has resulted that moral educa- 
tion has become a matter of state control and made one of the 
required subjects of study. 

Legal Provisions for Moral Instruction. 

California, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Maryland, 
-Massachusetts, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota. Oklahoma, 
South Carolina, South Dakota, Utah, A^ermont, Virginia, Wash- 
ington and Wisconsin, have thus made legal provision.- While in 
most cases the statute merely mentions the subject, in some cases 
it is more specific. Thus the Utah law declares : 

"Moral instruction tending to impress upon the minds of the 
pupils the importance of good manners, truthfulness, temperance, 
purity, patriotism, and industry, shall be given in every district 
school, and all such schools shall be free from sectarian control. "^ 

The statute of Virginia requires : 

"Provision shall further be made for moral education in the 
public schools to be extended throughout the entire course. Such 
instruction shall be imparted by reading books and textbooks in- 
culcating the virtues of a pure and noble life. The textbooks 
shall be selected, as are other textbooks, by the State Board of 
Education."* 

The law in jNIassachusetts is more comprehensive than any 

other. 

"The president, professors, and tutors of the university at 
Cambridge, and of the several colleges, all preceptors and teachers 
of academies and all other instructors of youth, shall exert their 
best endeavors to impress on the minds of children and youth 
committed to their care and instruction the principles of piety and 
justice and a sacred regard for truth, love of their country, hu- 
manity and universal benevolence, sobriety, industry and frugality, 
chastity, moderation and temperance, and those other virtues 
which are the ornament of human society, and the basis upon 

2 For code reference see appendix. 

3 LTtah School Laws, 1913, p. 45, sec. 1S4S. 

4 Virgrinia School Laws, 1911, p. 71, sec. S3. 



MOEAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 87 

which repubhcan constitution is founded ; and they shah endeavor 
to lead their pupils as their ages and capacities will admit, into a 
clear understanding of the tendency of the above mentioned vir- 
tues to preserve and perfect a republican constitution and secure 
the blessings of liberty, as well as to promote their future hap- 
piness, and also to point out to them the evil tendency of the op- 
posite vices. "^ 

Constitutional Provisions Regarding Religious Instruction. 
Though the separation of church and state has become a 
recognized principle in the United States, the intimate relation 
of morality and religion, the belief of many that the former can- 
not be taught divorced from the latter, together with the many 
and diverse vieAvs on matters of religion, have been instrumental 
in bringing into prominence the question of religious teaching and 
sectarianism in the public school. Constitutionally, but few pro- 
visions are made respecting the subject. Connecticut, Indiana, 
Iowa, Maine, Maryland, New Jersey, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode 
Island, Tennessee and West Virginia, are silent on the subject. 
Where provisions are found, they are largely against appropri- 
ations for religious, denominational, or sectarian instruction. 
Thirty states, Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado. Delaware, 
Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, 
Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, 
New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, 
Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, 
X'lrginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, prohibit such support. Georgia 
alone provides for appropriations to other than public schools. 
In the constitutions of only twelve states is any reference 
made to religious or sectarian instruction, which in each case 
is prohibited. Idaho provides against the use of sectarian books 
and further, together with Colorado, Montana and Wyoming, de- 
clares that attendance at any religious exercises, whatsoever, in 
public schools shall not be required of teacher or student. In the 
constitutions of Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah and 
Washington, it is declared that the public school shall be free 
from sectarian control. In Nevada, any school may be deprived 
of its proportional share of the interest of the school fund, and in 
Arizona a teacher using sectarian books, teaching sectarian doc- 



5 Massachusetts School Laws, 1911, p. 24, sec. 18. 



88 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

trines, or giving religious instruction, may have his certificate 
revoked. Bible reading, per se, is not prohibited in any constitu- 
tion. Mississippi, though denyng financial support for sectarian 
purposes, is the one state stipulating in her constitution that the 
Bible shall not be excluded from her public schools.*' 

Statutory Provisions Regarding Religious Instruction. 

In many of the statutes, the provisions of the constitutions 
are either re-affirmed or supplemented. Alabama, Connecticut, 
Delaware, Florida, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, Mississippi, 
Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, 
Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, 
Mrginia, West Virginia and Wyoming, have no school laws on 
the subject. Arizona, Arkansas, California, Georgia, Kentucky, 
^Maryland, Massachuseiits, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, 
North Carolina and Wisconsin, prohibit the use of sectarian 
books ; Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, 
Nevada, South Dakota, Utah, and the territory of Hawaii, 
sectarian instruction ; Washington, sectarian control ; and Ill- 
inois, Michigan, South Dakota, and Texas, appropriation for 
religious or sectarian purposes. Georgia, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas. 
j^.Iassachusetts, New Jersey, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, South 
Dakota, provide in their statutes that the Bible shall not be ex- 
. eluded. It is interesting to note that a number of these states, 
though retaining the Bible in the public school, prohibit either the 
use of sectarian books or sectarian instruction. Thus the law in 
North Dakota provides : 

"The Bible shall not be deemed a sectarian book. It shall 
not be excluded from any public school. It may at the option of 
the teacher be read in school without sectarian comment, not to 
exceed ten minutes daily. No pupil shall be required to read it, 
nor be present in the school room during the reading thereof, 
contrarv to the wishes of his parents or guardian or other person 
bavins: him in charge."" 



6 "No religious test as a qualification for office shall be required; 
and no preference shall be given by law to any religious sect or mode 
of worship; but the free enjoyment of all religious sentiments and the 
difeerent modes of worship shall be held sacred. The rights hereby se- 
cured shall not be construed to justify acts of licentiousness injurious 
to morals or dangerous to the peace and safety of the state, or to ex- 
clude the Holy Bible from use in any public school of this state." — Miss., 
art. 1, sec. 18. 

7 North Dakota School Laws, 1911, p. S6, sec. 276. 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 89 

Massachusetts not only declares against the exclusion of the 
Bible, but requires its use. The law demands : 

"A portion of the Bible shall be read daity in the public 
schools, without written note or oral comment; but a pupil v/hose 
parent or guardian informs the teacher in writing that he has 
conscientious scruples against it, shall not be required to read 
from any particular version, or to take any personal part in the 
reading. The school committee shall not purchase or use school 
books in the public schools calculated to favor the tenets of any 
particular religious sect."^ 

Similarly the law of Pennsylvania requires : 
"That at least ten verses from the Holy Bible shall be read, 
or caused to be read, without comment, at the opening of each and 
every public school, upon each and every school day by the 
teacher in charge ; Provided, That where any teacher has other 
teachers under and subject to direction, then the teacher exercising 
this authority shall read the Holy Bible, or cause it to be read, as 
herein directed. 

"That if any school teacher whose duty it shall be to read 
the Holy Bible, or cause it to be read, as directed in this act, shall 
fail or omit so to do, said school teacher shall, upon charges pre- 
ferred for such failure or omission, and proof of the same^ before 
the governing board of the school district, be discharged."^ 

Legal Decisions Regarding Religious Instruction. 

While the states thus differ in their constitutional and statu- 
tory provisions on this subject, there is no more unanimity in the 
legal decisions. The courts basing their decisions on these pro- 
visions or lack of provisions have, necessarily, arrived at differ- 
ent conclusions. 

Most of the decisions on this subject have centered around 
the reading of the Bible. One of the earliest cases was that of 
Donahue v. Richards, of Maine, in 1854. Although Bible read- 
ing was the real cause of it, the decision hinged on the authority 
of the Superintending School Committee. This was an action 
brought by the plaintiff, through her father, against the Superin- 
tending School Committee to recover damages for "maliciously, 
wrongfully and unjustifiably" expelling her from one of the town 
schools for refusing to read in the school the Protestant version 



8 Massachusetts School I^aws, 1911, p. 25, sec. 19. 

9 Pennsylvania School Laws, 1913, p. 156, art. J. 



90 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRyCTION 

of the Engiisli Bible, which had been ordered to be used therein. 
The court decided : 

1. "That the legislature have reposed with the Superintend- 
ing School Committee the power of directing the general course 
of instruction, and what books shall be used in the schools ; and 
they may rightfully enforce obedience to all regulations by them 
made within the sphere of their authority. 

2. "For the refusal to read a book thus prescribed, the com- 
mittee may expel such disobedient pupil. 

3. "No scholar can escape such requirement on the plea 
that his conscience will not allow the reading of such a book. 

4. "Nor can the ordinance be nullified, because the church 
of which the scholar is a member holds that it is a sin to read the 
book prescribed. 

5. "That a law is not unconstitutional because it may pro- 
hibit what one may conscientiously think right or require what 
he may conscientiously think wrong. 

6. "A requirement by the Superintending School Committee 
that the Protestant version of the Bible shall be read in the public 
schools by the scholars who are able to read is in violation of no 
constitutional provision and is binding upon all members of the 
school, although composed of diverse religious sects." 

Judg;e Appleton in giving the decision of the court said in 
part that : 

"The common schools are not for the purpose of instruction 
in the theological doctrines of any religion, or of any sect. The 
state regards no one sect as superior to any other — and no theo- 
logical views as peculiarly entitled to precedence. It is no part 
of the duty of the instructor to give theological instruction, and 
if the peculiar tenet of any particular sect were so taught it would 
furnish a well grounded cause of complaint on the part of those 
who entertained different or opposing religious sentiments. But 
the instruction here given is not in fact, and is not alleged to have 
been in articles of faith. No theological doctrines w'ere taught. 
The creed of no sect was affirmed or denied. The truth or false- 
hood of the book, in which the scholars were required to read, was 
not asserted. No interference by way of instruction, with the 
views of the scholars, whether derived from parental or sacerdotal 
authority is shown. The Bible was used merely as a book in 
v/hich instruction in reading was given. But reading the Bible 
is no more an interference with religious belief than would read- 
ing the mythology of Greece or Rome be regarded as interfering 
with religious belief or an affirmance of the pagan creeds. A 
chapter in the Koran might be read, yet it would not be an af- 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 91 

firmation of the truth of ]\[ohameclanism. or an interference with 
religious faith. "^" 

Another decision which hkewise declared the authority of 
school boards, though producing the opposite efifect in this case, 
was given several decades later. The Board of Education of Cin- 
cinnati, in 1872, had adopted a resolution prohibiting religious in- 
struction and the reading of religious books, including the holy 
Bible, in the common schools of Cincinnati, and repealing so 
much of the regulation on the course of study and text-books as 
provided for the reading of a portion of the Bible by, or under 
the direction of the teacher, and appropriate singing by the pupils. 
Suit was brought in the Superior Court of Cincinnati to enjoin 
the Board from carryng into effect these resolutions. Injunc- 
tion being granted, the case was appealed to the Supreme Court 
which decided : 

1. "The constitution of the state does not enjoin or require 
religious instruction, or the reading of religious books, in the pub- 
lic schools of the state. 

2. "The legislature having placed the management of the 
public schools under the exclusive control of directors, trustees, 
and boards of. education, the courts have no rightful authority 
to interfere by directing what instruction shall be given or what 
books shall be read therein."" 

This decision thus made religious instruction optional with 
the school board, and asserted the right of the board to enforce 
the aforesaid resolution. 

A most important case, determining the right of the town 
school committee to pass rules and regulations for the manage- 
ment of the schools, especially with reference to the opening ex- 
ercises involving the use of the Bible was decided in the Massa- 
chusetts Court in 1866. The superintending school committee of 
the town of Woburn passed an order that the schools of the town 
should be opened each morning with reading from the Bible and 
prayer, and that during the prayer the scholars should bow their 
heads. One Ella R. Spiller refused to comply with such order 
and, largelv because of the objection of the plaintifif's father to 
the latter portion of this order, the committee afterwards modified 
it and directed that anv scholar should be excused from bowing 



10 Donahue v. Richard.s, 38 Me., 379. 

11 The Board of Education of the City of Cincinnati v. John D. 
Minor, 23 Ohio State, 211. 



92 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

the head whose parent requested it. The plaintiff's father, how- 
ever, decHned to make such request and directed his daughter not 
to obey that part of the order. Persisting in her refusal to bow 
her head during prayer, she was excluded from the school until 
she should do so or her parent request that she should be excused 
therefrom. Suit was brought for damages, and the court held 
that her exclusion from the school was justifiable and furnished 
no ground for action. Chief Justice Bigelow, in giving the unani- 
rnus opinion of the court, composed of six judges, said in part: 

"The power of the school committee of a town to pass all 
reasonable rules and regulations for the government, discipline, 
and management of the public schools under their general charge 
and superintendence is clear and unquestionable. Equally clear 
is it that the committee of the town of Woburn did not exceed 
their authority in passing an order that the Bible should be read 
and prayer offered at the opening' of the schools on the morning 
of each day. No more appropriate method could be adopted of 
keeping in the minds of both teachers and scholars that one of 
the chief objects of education, as declared by the statutes of this 
commonwealth, and which teachers are especially enjoined to 
carry into effect, is to impress on the minds of the children and 
youth committed to their care and instruction the principles of 
piety and justice and a sacred regard for truth. "^^ 

In the independent district of Bloomfield, Iowa, the teachers 
were accustomed to occupy a few minutes each morning in read- 
ing selections from the Bible, in repeating the Lord's prayer, and 
singing religious songs. Action was brought in the district court 
against the teachers of the school and directors of the district, 
praying for an injunction to prevent the continuance of such ex- 
ercise. The court refused to grant the injunction, and the case 
was appealed to the Supreme Court, which held that the injunc- 
tion was properly denied and unanimously affirmed the decision 
of the lower court. Justice Adams, in giving the decision, said 
in part : 

'The plaintiff concedes that under section 1764 of the Code 
of Iowa, if constitutional, neither the school directors nor the 
courts have the power to exclude the Bible from the public 
schools. The provision of the statute is in these words: 'The 
Bible shall not be excluded from any school or institution in this 
state, nor shall any pupil be required to read it contrary to the 
wishes of his parent or guardian.' Under this provision it is a 

12 Mia R. SpiUer v. Inhabitants of Woburn, 12 AUen, 127. 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 93 

matter of individual opinion with school teachers whether they 
will use the Bible in their schools or not, such option being re- 
stricted only by the provision that no pupil shall be required to read 
ii; contrary to the wishes of parent or guardian. The plaintiff in- 
sists, however, that it is unconstitutional. The provision of the 
constitution with which it is said to conflict is art. 1, sec< 3, bill of 
rights, providing', — 'The general assembly shall make no law re- 
spectng an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free ex- 
ercise thereof; nor shall any person be compelled to attend any 
p)lace of worship, pay tithes, or other rates, for building or repair- 
ing places of worship, or the maintenance of any minister or min- 
istry.' The plaintiff's position is that by the use of the school 
house as a place for reading the Bible, repeating the Lord's 
prayer and singing religious songs, it is made a place of worship ; 
and so his children are compelled to attend a place of worship 
and he as taxpayer is compelled to pay taxes for building and re- 
pairing a place of w^orship. He can conceive that exercises like 
those described might be adopted with other views than those of 
worship, and possibly they are in the case at bar ; but it is hardly 
to be presumed that this is wholly so. For the purposes of the 
opinion it may be conceded that the teachers do not intend to 
wholly exclude the idea of worship. It would follow from such 
concession that the schoolhouse is, in some sense, for- the time 
being, made a place of worship. But it seems to us that if we 
should hold the schoolhouse a place of worship, even conceding 
the Bible reading complained of to be for the purpose of religious 
worship, we should put a very strained meaning on the constitu- 
tion. The object of the provision, we think, is, not to prevent the 
casual use of a public building as a place for offering prayer or 
doing acts of religious worship, but to prevent the enactment of 
a law w^hereby any person can be compelled to pay taxes for 
building or repairing any place designed to be used distinctively 
as a place of worship. . . . We do not think, indeed, that 
the plaintift''s real objection grows out of the matter of taxation. 
We infer from his argument that his real objection is that the re- 
ligious exercises are made a part of the educational system into 
which his children must be drawn, or made to appear singular, 
and perhaps be subjected to some inconvenience. But, so long 
as the plaintiff's children are not required to be in attendance at 
the exercises, we cannot regard the objection as one of great 
weight. Besides, if we regarded it as of greater weight than we 
do, we should have to say that we do not find anything in the 
constitution or law upon which the plaintiff can properly ground 
his application for relief."^'' 



13 Moore V. Monroe, 64 Iowa, 367. 



94 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

In recent years, the decisions for and against the use of the 
Bible have been about ec|ually divided. In 1890 was decided the 
widely noted Edgerton case, which practically put the Bible out 
of the public schools of Wisconsin. This was the first case in- 
volving the question of sectarian instruction in any state whose 
constitution contains a direct prohibition of sectarian instruction 
in the public schools. In the city of Edgerton a number of 
teachers were accustomed to read each morning at the opening of 
school selections from the King James' version of the Bible. A 
number of residents and taxpayers of the district, members of the 
Roman Catholic Church, having children in school, objected and 
asked that such practice be discontinued. The board, however, 
refused tO' do so and the case came into the courts. The circuit 
court denied the writ of mandamus asked to compel the board to 
have Bible reading stopped, but the Supreme Court reversed the 
decision. 

The constitutional objections urged by the petitioners were 
(1) that it violated the right of conscience, (3) that it compelled 
them to aid in the support of a place of worship against their con- 
sent, it was sectarian instruction. The decision included the fol- 
lowing : 

"The courts will take judicial notice of the contents of the 
Bible, that the religious world is divided into numerous sects, and 
of the general doctrines maintained by each sect. 

"The use of any version of the Bible as a textbook in the 
public schools, and the stated reading thereof in such schools by 
the teachers, without restriction, though unaccompanied by any 
comment, has a tendency to inculcate sectarian ideas, within the 
meaning of sec. 3, ch. 251, Laws of 1883, and is sectarian instruc- 
tion within the meaning of sec. 3, art. 10, of the constitution. 

"But textbooks founded upon the fundamental teachings of 
the Bible or which contain extracts therefrom and such portions 
of the Bible as are not sectarian, may be used in the secular in- 
struction of the pupils and to inculcate good morals. 

"The fact that the children of the petitioners are at liberty 
to withdraw from the schoolroom during the reading of the 
Bible does not remove the ground of complaint. 

"The stated reading of the Bible as a textbook in the pub- 
lic schools may be worship and the schoolhouse thereby become 
for the time being a place of worship within the meaning of sec. 
18. art. TI. constitution; and to such use of the schoolhouse the 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 95 

lax payers, who are compelled to aid in its erection and in the 
maintenance of the school have a legal right to object.'"^* 

Michigan has no provision regarding sectarian instruction or 
the use of sectarian books, neither in her constitution nor in her 
statutes. In Pfeififer v. Board of Education of Detroit, in 1898, 
it was sought to compel the board of education of the city of De- 
troit to discontinue the use in the public schools of a book known 
as "Readings from the Bible." The Supreme Court in reversing 
the order of the circuit court granting the writ of mandamus de- 
cided : 

1. "A constitutional provision could not mean one thing 
at the time of its adoption, and another thing at a subsequent 
time, and hence it is to be construed with reference to the state 
of the law at the time of such adoption, and to the practice and 
usages then prevailing. 

2. "Judicial notice may be taken of the practice, which has 
obtained for many years in the public schools, of reading from 
the Bible and offering prayer in the presence of pupils. 

3. "The use in the public schools, for fifteen minutes at the 
close of each day's session, as a supplemental textbook on read- 
ing, of a book entitled. 'Readings from the Bible,' which is 
largely made up of extracts from the Bible, emphasizing the 
moral precepts of the Ten Commandments, where the teacher is 
forbidden to make any comment upon the matter therein con- 
tained, and is required to excuse from that part of the session 
any pupil upon application of his parent or guardian, is not a 
violation of the State Constitution, article 4, § 41, prohibiting the 
legislature from diminishing" or enlarging the civil or political 
rights, privileges, and capacities of any person on account of his 
opinion or belief concerning matters of religion. 

4. "Nor is it a violation of article 4, § 40, providing that no 
money shall be appropriated or drawn from the treasury for the 
benefit of any religious sect or society, theological or religious 
seminary, nor shall property belonging to the state be appropri- 
ated for any such purpose. 

5. "Nor is it a violation of article 4, § 39, providing that 
'the legislature shall pass no law to prevent any person from wor- 
shipping Almighty God according to the dictates of his own con- 
science," or to compel any person to attend, erect, or support any 
place of religious worship, or to pay tithes, taxes or other rates 
for the support of any minister of the gospel or teacher of re- 
ligion." 



i4V7eiss V. School Board of Dist. No. 8, 76 Wis., 179. 



96 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

Judge Montgomery, in giving the decision of the court, one 
judge dissenting, said in part: 

"Is the reading of extracts taken from the Bible a violation 
of the provision of the constitution which inhibits the diminishing 
or enlarging of the civil or political rights, privileges, and capaci- 
ties of the individual on account of his opinion or belief concern- 
ing matters of religion? We do not think it can be maintained 
that the section has any application to this subject. The primary 
purpose of this provision was to exclude religious texts, and to 
place citizens on an equality before the law as to the exercise of 
the franchise of voting or holding ofhce. The language is inapt 
to be apphed as restricting the use of school-rooms or school 
funds. It might be said that many of the students in our schools 
are not in position to avail themselves of the opportunity to study 
the dead languages. Is it therefore an unjust discrimination to 
provide for instruction in Latin and Greek for such pupils as are 
able to devote their time to those studies ? Does it harm one who 
does not, for conscientious reasons, care to listen to reading from 
the Bible, that others are given the opportunity to do so? Is it 
not intolerant for one not required to attend to object to such 
readings. It may be said, of course, that the services of the 
teacher while engaged in these exercises are paid out of the fund 
in which all are entitled to share ; but the same is true of the time 
which the teacher devotes to the languages, or instruction in 
higher mathematics. Does it follow that the civil rights or privi- 
leges of the students who do not accept teaching in those 
branches, or those who do, have been on the one hand dimin- 
ished, or on the other, enlarged? I do not think it should be so 
held. In my opinion, the reading of the extracts from the Bible 
in the manner indicated by the return, without comment, is not 
in violation of any constitutional provision. I am not able to see 
why extracts from the Bible should be proscribed, when the 
youth are taught no better authenticated truths of profane his- 
tory."^' 

An important case, agreeing in many particulars with the 
noted Edgerton case, was decided by the Nebraska Supreme 
Court in 1903. The constitution of Nebraska, like that of Wis- 
consin, prohibits sectarian instruction. One Freeman, a Catholic, 
who had several times before interfered in like manner, objected 
to the opening exercises in the public school of district No. 21, 
Gage County, Neb., where his children were attending. The 
teacher, with the approval of the directors, was accustomed to 
read a portion of the Bible, sing gospel hymns, and offer prayer. 

15 Pfeiffer v. Board of Education of Detroit, 118 Mich., 560. 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 97 

The matter was referred to the State Superintendent, who ap- 
proved of the exercises, but some days before his letter reached 
the board, Freeman had begun action in the district court of 
Gage county. 

'The decison of the judge ut nisi prkis was to the eltect that 
the matter of textbooks, etc., to be used in public schools, was to 
be determined by the school board, and, except in a case of abuse, 
the court would not attempt to control their discretion." 

The constitution of Nebraska contains the following: 
Art. 1, Sec. 4. "All persons have a natural and indefeasible 
right to worship Almighty God according to the dictates of their 
own consciences. No person shall be compelled to attend, erect, 
or support, any place of worship against his consent, and no pref- 
erence shall be given by law to any religious society, nor shall 
any interference with the rights of conscience be permitted." 

Art. 8, Sec. 11. "No sectarian instruction shall be allowed 
in any school or institution supported, in whole or in part, bv the 
public funds set apart for educational purposes." 

The Supreme Court decided that : 

"Exercises by a teacher in a public school building, in school 
hours, and in the presence of the pupils, consisting of the read- 
ing of passages from the Bible, and in the singing of songs and 
hymns, and offering of prayer to the Deity, in accordance with 
the doctrines, beliefs, customs, or usages of sectarian churches or 
religious organizations, is forbidden by the constitution of this 
state." 

Chief Justice Sullivan in over-ruling a rehearing gave the 
following opinion : 

1. "The right of all persons to worship Almighty God ac- 
cording to the dictates of their own consciences is declared by 
the constitution of this state to be a natural and indefeasible right. 

2. "There is nothing in the constitution or laws of this state, 
nor in the history of our people, upon which to ground a claim 
that it is the duty of government to teach religion. 

3. "The whole duty of the state with respect to reHgion 
is to protect every religious denomination in the peaceable enjoy- 
ment of its own mode of public worship. 

4. "Enforced attendance upon religious services is forbid- 
den by the constitution, and pupils in a public school cannot l^e 
required either to attend such services or to join in them. 

5. "A teacher in a public school, being vested during school 
hours with a general authority over his pupils, his requests are 
practically commands. 



98 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

6. "It is immaterial whether the objection of a parent to 
his children attending, and participating in a religious service 
conducted by a teacher in the school room during school hours, 
is reasonable or unreasonable. The right to be unreasonable in 
such matters is guaranteed by the constitution. 

7. "The law does not forbid the use of the Bible in public 
schools ; it is not prescribed either by the constitution or statutes ; 
and the courts have no right to declare the use to be unlawful be- 
cause it is possible or probable that those who are privileged to 
use it will misuse the privilege by attempting to propagate their 
own peculiar theological or ecclesiastical views and opinions. 

8. "The point where the courts may rightfully interfere, 
to prevent the use of the Bible in a public school, is where legiti- 
mate use has degenerated into abuse — where a teacher employed 
to give secular instruction has violated the constitution by becom- 
ing a sectarian propagandist. 

9. "Whether it is prudent or politic to permit Bible read- 
ing in the public schools is a question for the school authorities, 
but whether the practice of Bible reading has taken the form of 
sectarian instruction is a question for the courts to determine 
upon evidence. 

10. "It will not be presumed in any case that the law has 
been violated ; every alleged violation must be established by 
competent proof. "^"^ 

A few vears ago the Kansas Supreme Court was called upon 
to pass on the use of the Bible in the public schools. In 1904, one 
Philip Billard was expelled from school for persistently disobey- 
ing its rules. The opening exercises of the school consisted, gen- 
erally, of repeating the Lord's prayer and the twenty-third Psalm, 
of reading selections from natural history and of singing occas- 
ionallv a selection from the "Normal Music Course." The pupils 
were not required to take part in these exercises, but were re- 
quired to refrain from their regular studies and preserve order 
during that period. The plaintiff made complaint, and thereafter 
Philip was excused from attending these exercises and permitted 
to enter the schoolroom fifteen minutes after the regular hour. 
After a time he again entered school with other pupils and per- 
sisted in disobeying this rule . After repeated admonitions from 
his teacher and reproofs for disobedience and positive refusal to 
obey, he was expelled. The plaintiff sought by mandamus in the 
district court of Shawnee county to compel the board of educa- 



16 state V. Scheve, 65 Neb., 853. 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 99 

tion to permit his son Philip to re-enter the city schools, but fail- 
ing in this the case came before the Supreme Court. The Su- 
preme Court in affirming the judgment of the court below, de- 
clared that the exercises complained of were not a form of re- 
ligious worship or the teaching of sectarian or religious doctrine. 

"There is nothing in the constitution or statute which can 
be construed as an intention to exclude the Bible from the public 
schools. . . . The noblest ideals of moral character are 
found in the Bible. To emulate these is the supreme conception 
of citizenship. It could not, therefore, have been the intention 
of the framers of our constitution to impose the duty upon the 
legislature of establishing a system of common schools where 
morals were to be inculcated and exclude therefrom the lives of 
those persons who possessed the highest moral attainments."^' 

Recently cases involving the question of sectarian instruction 
have again been before the courts. In 1906, the Court of Appeals 
of New York affirmed the judgment of the State Superintendent 
(now the Commissioner of Education) who had decided : ■ 

"That the wearing of an unusual dress or garb, worn exclu- 
sively by members of one religious denomination for the purpose 
of indicating membership in that denomination, by the teachers 
in the public schools during school hours while teaching therein, 
constitutes a sectarian influence and the teaching of a denom- 
inational tenet or doctrine which oug'ht not to be persisted in."^^ 
• The court declared : 

1. "While no express authority was given the state super- 
intendent of public instruction under Consolidated School laws, 
Laws 1894, p. 11, c. 556, to establish regulations as to the man- 
agement of public schools, he has the power to make such regula- 
tions as are consonant with the general purpose of the statute 
and not inconsistent with the laws of the state. 

2. "A regulation of the superintendent of public instruction 
prohibiting teachers in public schools from wearing a distinctly 
religious garb while teaching therein is a reasonable and valid 
exercise of the power conferred upon him to establish regulations 
as to the management of public schools, because the influence of 
such apparel is distinctly sectarian, and the prohibition is in ac- 
cord with the public policy of the state, as declared in court, art. 
9, § 4. forbidding the use of property or credit of the state in the 
aid of sectarian influence."^^ 



IT Billard v. The Board of Education of the City of Topeka, 69 
Kan., 53. 

18 State School System II, Bulletin No. 7, p. 313. 

19 O'Conner v. Hendrick, 77 N. E., 612. 



100 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

In 1908, it was sought to compel the board of trustees of 
the pubhc school of the city of Corsicana, Texas, to desist from 
conducting- certain exercises in said school alleged to be rehgious 
or sectarian. Judge Brown in giving the decision of the Supreme 
Court said ; 

"This is an action for mandamus brought in the district 
court by appellees against the board of trustees of the public 
school of the city of Corsicana, appellees commanding said trustees 
to desist from conducting certain exercises in said school which 
are alleged to be religious and sectarian. Defendants answered 
by general denial and specially, in substance, that said exercises 
were neither religious nor sectarian in the sense prohibited by 
the constitution or laws of the state. A trial before the court 
without a jury resulted in favor of defendants, and the plaintiff's 
appeal. The evidence shows that E. H. Church does not believe 
in the inspiration of the Bible, that J. B. Jackson and Mrs. Lita 
Garrity are Roman Catholics, and that M. Cohen and Abe Levine 
are jews. All of said parties have children and are patrons of 
said school. Mrs. Garrity and E. H. Church had protested to 
said trustees and teachers against the conducting of said exer- 
cises. Jackson, Cohen, and Levine had made no protest. The 
protest made had been disregarded by said trustees, and their 
action sustained by the state superintendent of public instruction. 
Said exercises were conducted in pursuance of the following 
resolution adopted by the board of school trustees of the city of 
Corsicana, viz., 'Whereas, in the opinion of the board of school 
trustees of the Independent school district of the city of Corsi- 
cana, it would tend to draw the attention of the pupils away from 
other affairs and concentrate it upon the school work and would 
also tend toward an uplift of the moral tone of the student body, 
to have the daily sessions of our schools begin with appropriate 
"opening exercises," therefore, be it resolved by said board, that 
the board will view with favor the inauguration by the superin- 
tendent of a morning "opening exercise" in the high school and 
in all the rooms of the several ward schools, in which a short pas- 
sage of the Bible may be read, without comment, by the teacher 
in charge, the Lord's Prayer recited in concert, and appropriate 
songs sung by the pupils. It is not intended by the board, how- 
ever, to herein prescribe the character of such opening exercises, 
but is simply desired to indicate to the superintendent and 
teachers that any reasonable regulation in regard to such morn- 
ing exercises along the lines above indicated, established by the 
superintendent, will have the sanction and approbation of the 
board.' The exercises complained of are: 'The most of the 
teachers (but not all of them) read every morning from the 
Bible to their classes, and the pupils in almost every room are 



MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 101 

invited to join in the recital of the Lord's Prayer, and in all the 
rooms songs are sung by the pupils, usually patriotic songs such 
as "America," and the songs usually found in the music book used 
in the public schools of Texas. These exercises are prescribed by 
the superintendent of the city schools, under and by virtue of the 
resolutions shown above, and constitute a part of the regular or- 
der of every day. and all children attending the public schools 
of Corsicana are expected to be present during such exercises, 
and are not excused therefrom, and are marked tardy if not 
present when such exercises begin. No pupil, however, is re- 
quired by the teacher in charge to take active personal part in 
such exercises, though all are invited by the teachers to do so, the 
pupils are not required by the teacher to repeat the Lord's Prayer 
or to join in the songs sung, but are invited to do so, and as a 
matter of fact as a general thing, nearly all pupils join in the re- 
cital of the Lord's Prayer and in the singing. The only require- 
ment made and enforced in the opening exercises of the school is 
that the pupil shall be present, and during the exercises behave 
in an orderly manner. The only attitude or posture which 
pupils are requested to assume during the exercises in question is 
that of bowing the head during the Lord's Prayer, and this is 
not required by the teachers of the pupils. Since the said open- 
ing exercises have been held, beginning with the opening of 
schools in September last, the selections from the Bible, which 
have been read in the several rooms of the schools, have been 
principally passages from the Old Testament, including selections 
from Psalms, Proverbs, and some of the old familiar stories from 
tiie Old Testament. The selections read from the New Testa- 
ment are usually the sermon on the mount and the passages of 
like tenor. In all reading the Bible used is King James' version. 
Since the practice of reading of the Bible was begun as aforesaid 
in said schools, the reading by the several teachers has been 
without comment, explanation, or attempt at interpretation what- 
ever. 

"To hold that the ofifering of prayers, either by the repeti- 
tion of the Lord's Prayer or otherwise, the singing of songs, 
vvhether devotional or not, and the reading of the Bible, make 
the place where such is done a place of worship would produce 
intolerable results. The house of representatives and the senate 
of the state legislature each elect a chaplain, who, during the ses- 
sion, daily offers prayers to Almighty God in behalf of the State, 
and in the most express manner invokes the supervision and over- 
sight of God for the lawmakers. In the chapel of the state uni- 
versity building a religious service, consisting of singing songs, 
reading portions of the Bible, with prayers and addresses by 
ministers and others, is held each day. The Young Men's Chris- 



102 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

tian Association hold their services in that building each Lord's 
Day, and the Young Women's Christian Association has a like 
service in another public building. At the blind institute on each 
Lord's Day prayers are offered, songs are sung, Sunday school 
is taught, and addresses made to the children with regard to re- 
ligious matters. An annual appropriation is made for a chap- 
lain for the penitentiary. In fact, Christianity is so interwoven 
with the web and woof of the state government that to sustain 
the contention that the constitution prohibits reading the Bible, 
offering prayers, or singing songs of a religious character in any 
public building of the government would produce a condition 
bordering upon moral anarchy. The absurd and hurtful conse- 
quences furnish a strong argument against the soundness of the 
proposition. The right to instruct the young in the morality of 
the Bible might be carried to such extent in the public schools 
as it would make it obnoxious to the constitutional inhibition, not 
because God is worshipped, but because by the character of the 
services the place would be made 'a place of worship.' 

''There is no difference in the protection given by our con- 
stitution between citizens of this state on account of religious be- 
liefs; all are embraced in its broad language and are entitled to 
the protection guaranteed thereby; but it does not follow that 
one or more individuals have the right to have the courts deny 
the people the privilege of havmg their children instructed in 
the moral truths of the Bible because objectors do not desire 
their own children shall be participants therein. This would be 
to starve the moral and spiritual nature of the many out of defer- 
ence to the few."-*' 

Other cases-^ might be cited, but they would only further 
illustrate the general trend of the judicial decisions. The cburts 
while not in full accord as to whether the reading of the Bible 
constitutes sectarian instruction, are unanimous in their decis- 
ions against sectarian teaching in the public schools. 

The State the Factor of Control. 

The provisions, constitutional as well as statutory, considered 
in this chapter, are growths largely of the last fifty years. There 
was no constitutional prohibition to granting state aid for sec- 
tarian purposes prior to the admission of Wisconsin into the 
union, in 1848.-- No less than eleven constitutional provisions 

20 state School Systems II, Bulletin No. 7,^ p. 316. 

21 Millard v. Board of Education, 121 111.. 297; Nicholls v. School 
Directors, 93 111., 61; Spencer v. Joint School District, 15 Kan., 202. 

22Cance: The Leg-al Status of Religious Instruction in the Public 
Schools, p. 50. 



' MORAL AND RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 103 

were passed in the decade from 1885 to 1895. Moral and re- 
ligious education is no longer dominated by church or sect or 
local interest, but the state has assumed control over this impor- 
tant subject to safeguard the rights and privileges of society, in- 
dividually as well as collectively. Thus again it is apparent that 
the public school is a state not a local institution, and the control 
of the instruction here considered is further proof of the central- 
izing tendency before noted in elementary and secondary educa- 
tion. 



104 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 



CHAPTER VII. 
INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION. 

Importance of Supervision. 

In every line of human activity requiring united and organ- 
ized effort for the accompHshment of the end in view, some direc- 
tion and management is an inevitable necessity. With every in- 
crease in the complexity of the social organization, the function 
of the manager becomes more important. In the industrial world 
the "Captain of Industry" directs and marshals his forces, and 
l^ears in large measure the responsibility for failure or success. 
Under his efficient leadership, business enterprise achieves bril- 
liant success, only to decline and even end in failure when influ- 
ences or circumstances remove the guiding hand and brain. 
What is true industrially is equally true commercially and politi- 
cally, and holds with equal force in any system of education. 
School legislation in itself accomplishes but little. However com- 
prehensive and effective the laws, unless the same are wisely ad- 
ministered, unless the various forces of the educational regime 
are skilfully directed and supervised, the best enactments will 
prove of little avail and fail to attain the end for which the}^ were 
conceived. 

State control of education is exercised in two ways, through 
it:- laws and through its agents. The laws indicate the rules and 
regulations which are to govern the various educational interests 
of the state. The eft"ectiveness of any law, however, depends on 
the spirit and character of its enforcement, and hence, to the ex- 
tent that the state provides officers and vests them with power to 
direct and enforce the various educational provisions of the state, 
v.ill state control be effective. In the preceding- chapters the legal 
provisions pertaining to state control of elementary and second- 
ary courses of study have been considered, in the present the ef- 



INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION 105 

forts of the state to make these laws vital and effective will be 
analyzed. 

State Superintendent. 

State supervision qf public education, although of com- 
paratively recent development, is attaining extensive proportions. 
In each state today, with one exception — Delaware — there is a 
state superintendent. Thirty-two^ of the states provide for this 
official in their state constitutions. In Arkansas, Arizona, Cali- 
fornia, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, 
Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, 
New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, 
Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Ten- 
nessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wy- 
oming, he is known as superintendent of public instruction; in 
Alabama, South Carolina, and Vermont, as superintendent of edu- 
cation ; in Louisiana, Maryland and Mississippi, as superintendent 
of pubhc education ; in Maine, and Missouri, as superintendent of 
public schools ; in West Virginia, as superintendent of free 
schools ; in Connecticut, as secretary of the state board of educa- 
tion; in Massachusetts, New Jersey and New York, as commis- 
sioner of education ; in Rhode Island, as commissioner of public 
schools ; in Georgia, as state superintendent of schools. In most 
of the states,- he is elected by popular vote at the general election 
for a term varying from two to four years. In Arizona, Maine, 
Maryland. Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Mexico, 
Oklahoma, Pennsylvania and Tennessee, he is appointed by the 
governor. The state board of education appoints the secretary in 
Connecticut, wdiile this power of appointment rests with the gen- 
eral assembly in Rhode Island and Vermont. 

For this important position, fitness for office rather than 
political considerations should prevail. It is significant, however, 
that in only one of the states is the election for state superinten- 
dent held at other than the general election day. Wisconsin, in 
1901, changed the time of election from the general election in 
November to the time of the judicial election in April, for the 



1 Ala., Ariz., Ark., Cal., Col., Fla., Ga., Ida., 111., Ind., Kan., Ky., 
La., Mich.. Miss., Mo., Mont., N. C, No. Dak., Neb., Nev., Ofcla., Ore., Pa., 
S. C, So Dak.. Utah, Vt., ^Vash., W. Va., Wis., V^T'yo. 

2 See table. 



106 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

purpose of removing the office out of partisan politics. Still more 
remarkable, however, is the fact that in nearly all the states the 
law is silent as to professional qualifications, only ten states pre- 
scribing any whatsoever. Tennessee requires : 

"The State Superintendent shall be a person of literary and 
scientific attainments, and of skill and experience in the art of 
teaching, and who shall be nominated by the Governor and con- 
firmed by the Senate."^ 

Virginia demands that the superintendent of public instruc- 
tion "shall be an experienced educator."* The law in West Vir- 
ginia stipulates that : 

"He shall be a person of good moral character, of temperate 
habits, of literary acquirements and skill, and experience in the 
art of teaching."-^ 

Montana prescribes that : 

"The Superintendent of Public Instruction shall have attained 
the age of thirty years at the time of his election, and shall have 
resided within the state two years next preceding his election, and 
is the holder of a State certificate of the highest grade issued in 
some state and recognized by the State Board of Education, or 
is a graduate of some university, college or normal school recog- 
nized by the State Board of Education as of equal rank with the 
University of Montana or the State Normal School."^ 

In North Dakota it is required that the superintendent of 
public instruction : 

"Shall have attained the age of twenty-five years, who shall 
have the qualifications of an elector for that office, and be the 
holder of a teacher's certificate of the highest grade, issued in 
this state."^ 

In Utah it is stipulated that the 

"State Superintendent, at the time of his election, shall be a 
quahfied elector, shall have been a resident citizen of the State of 
Utah for five years next preceding his election, shall have at- 
tained the age of thirty years, shall be the holder of a state certif- 
icate of the highest grade issued in some states or shall be a 
graduate of some reputable university, college or normal school."® 



3 Tennessee Public School Laws, 1909, p. 3, sec. 3. 
4Virg-inia Public School Laws, 1911, p. 9, sec. 7. 

5 West Virginia School Laws, 1911, p. 56, sec. 124. 

6 Montana School Laws, 1913, p. 26, sec. 200. 

7 North Dakota School Laws, 1911, p. 11, sec. 1. 

8 Utah School Laws, 1913, p. 7, sec. 1774. 



INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION 107 

In 1903 a law was passed in Wisconsin requiring that : 
"No person shall be eligible to the office of the state super- 
intendent of public instruction who shall not at the time of his 
election thereto have taught or supervised teaching in the state 
of Wisconsin for a period of not less than five years, and who 
shall not, at such time, hold the highest grade of certificate which 
the state superintendent is by law empowered to issue. "'^ 

It is easily seen that these requirements are too indefinite, 
and are remarkable rather for what they omit than what they con- 
tain. While it is true that in spite of this, on the whole, the state 
superintendents have been men of high character and efficiency, 
it would seem that the law ought to prescribe qualifications com- 
mensurate with the importance of the highest educational office 
of the state. The powers and duties in almost any one of the 
states are extensive enough to call for men of the highest train- 
ing, experience and ability. His peculiar relation, not only to 
elementary and secondary schools, but to higher education as well, 
calls for qualifications of the first rank. It demands broad schol- 
arship that he may see and appreciate the needs and functions of 
all classes of schools, and wisely direct and stimulate the various 
educational agencies of the state, so that they may properly co- 
operate and work harmoniously for the highest and best welfare 
of all. He should be a true teacher by endowment, training and 
experience, so that he may be able to use wisely the opportunities 
open to him in stimulating and raising the professional interests 
of the teachers of the state. He should be an educator of such 
pronounced ability and force, that his moral and professional in- 
fluence may command respect in nation as well as state. 

The powers and duties of the superintendent vary greatly in 
the different states. His greatest influence, probably, springs out 
of his relations to the various schools, elementary, secondary and 
higher, the course of study, and the teachers of the state. In 
thirty-two states he is charged with the general supervision of 
public education. Thus Alabama requires: 

"He shall devote his time to the care and improvement of 
the common schools, and the promotion of public education, and 
shall exercise a general supervision over all the educational in- 
terests of the state."^" 



Wisconsin School Laws, 1911. p. 4, sec. 164. 
10 Alabama School Laws, 1911, p. 6, sec. 168.5. 



108 STATE CONTROL OP INSTRUCTION 

While this law is general, it empowers the superintendent to 
exercise a directing influence in the entire educational S3^stem and 
promote its best interests. Much of the best legislation comes 
about only through the creation of an intelligent public sentiment, 
and all laws unless thus supported will remain but a silent letter. 
The efficiency of any school depends not onl}^ on teachers and 
courses of study, but as much or more on the public sentiment 
which prevails in the community. Likewise the public school 
system requires for its highest welfare the intelligent interest and 
support of the people of the state. It is with this in view that 
Maine makes it the duty of the state superintendent : 

"To obtain information as to the school systems of other 
states and countries, and the condition and progress of public 
school education throughout the world ; to disseminate this in- 
formation, with such practical hints upon the conduct of schools, 
improved systems of instruction, and the true theory of educa- 
tion as observation and investigation convince him to be impor- 
tant, by public addresses, circulars and articles prepared for the 
press, and by outlines, suggestions and directions concerning the 
management, discipline and methods employed in teaching, pre- 
pared for and distributed among the teachers of the schools and 
school officers of the state ; and to do all in his power to awaken 
and sustain an interest in education among the people, and to stim- 
ulate teachers to well-directed efforts in their work."^^ 

In twelve states^- he is authorized to call county superinten- 
dents' conventions ; in fifteen,^^ to arrange for teachers' institutes ; 
in twelve,^"* there is a definite provision for school visiiation. 
This direct personal contact with those who direct and those who 
carry on the work of teaching, offers a great opportunity to stim- 
ulate right interests and mould the educational policy of the state. 
While it cannot be expected that the state superintendent shall 
visit many schools, yet through this means he is enabled to keep 
in touch with their work, see their real needs and, as far as he 
is able, further their interests. Iowa illustrates the general em- 
phasis which is placed upon the foregoing consideration : 



11 Maine School Laws, 1913, p. 39, sec. 100. 

i2Cal., Fla., Ma., Iowa, La., Minn., Miss., No. Dak., So. Dak., Utah, 
Wash., "Wis. 

13 Ala., Fla., Ida., Me., Md., Minn., Mont., Neb., N. H., N. Mex.. No. 
Dak., Ore., So. Dak., Vt. Va. 

14 Ala.. Cal., Col., Ga.. Ida., Mo., Neb., Nev.. Ohio, Ore., S. C, Utah, 
Vt, Wash. 



INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION 109 

"He shall be charged with the general supervison of all the 
county superintendents and the common schools of the state ; may 
meet county superintendents in convention at such points in the 
state as may be most suitable for the purpose, at which proper 
steps may be taken, looking toward securing a more uniform and 
efficient administration of the school laws. He shall appoint, upon 
the request of county superintendents, the time and place for hold- 
ing teachers' institutes, such institutes to be called when it is 
probable that not less than twenty teachers will be present, and 
remain in session not less than six working days, of which time 
and place of meeting he shall give notice to the county superin- 
tendent of the proper county. He shall attend teachers' institutes 
thus called in the several counties of the state, so far as consist- 
ent with his official duties, and assist in their management and 
instruction. He shall have power to collect, publish and distribute 
statistical and other information relative to public schools and 
education in general; to visit teachers' association meetings and 
make tours of inspection among the common schools and other 
institutions of learning in the state, and may deliver addresses 
upon subjects relative to education ; to prepare, publish, and 
distribute blank forms for all returns he may think necessary, or 
that may be required by law, of teachers, or school officers ; to 
publish and distribute annually leaflets and circulars relative to 
arbor day, memorial day, and other days considered by him 
worthy of special observance in public schools, the number to be 
determined by the executive council ; to prepare questions for the 
us.e of county superintendents in the examination of applicants for 
teachers' certificates : and to prepare, publish and distribute, 
among teachers and school officers, courses of study for use in 
the rural and high schools of the state, the numl^er thereof to be 
fixed by the executive council."^'' 

In New York, public education is practically under the ab- 
solute control of the regents of the University,^'^ inasmuch as the 
commissioner of education, although granted great power in re- 
lation to elementary, secondary, and other schools, serves during 
the pleasure of the board of regents, and all appointments in the 
Education department made by the commissioner are subject to 
the approval of the regents.^' Among his general powers and 
duties are the following: 

"He is the chief executive officer of the state system of edu- 
cation and of the board of regents. He shall enforce all general 



15 Iowa School I.aws, '11. p. 7, sec. 2622. 

16 See chap. VIII. 

IT New York Education Law, 1912, p. 6, sees. 20-24. 



110 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

and special laws relating to the educational system of the state 
and execute all educational policies determined upon by the board 
of regents. 

"He shall have general supervision over all schools and in- 
stitutions which are subject to the provisions of this act. or of any 
statute relating to education, and shall cause the same to he ex- 
amined and inspected, and shall advise and guide the school of- 
ficers of all districts and cities of the state in relation to their 
duties and the general management of the schools under their 
control. 

"He shall have general supervision of industrial schools, 
trade schools and schools of agriculture, mechanic arts and home- 
making ; he shall prescribe regulations governing the licensing of 
the teachers employed therein ; and he is hereby authorized, em- 
powered and directed to provide for the inspection of such 
schools, to take necessary action to make effectual the provisions 
therefor, and to advise and assist boards of education in the sev- 
eral cities and school districts in the establishment, organization 
and management of such schools. 

"He shall also have general supervision over the state nor- 
mal schools which have been, or which may hereafter be, estab- 
lished, as required by the provisions of this chapter. 

"He shall be ex officio a trustee of Cornell university. 

"He may annul upon cause shown to his satisfaction any 
certificate of qualification granted to a teacher by any authority 
whatever, or declare any diploma issued by a state normal school 
ineffective and null as a qualification to teach a common school 
within this state, and he may reconsider and reverse his action 
in any such matter. 

"He is hereby authorized to furnish, by means of pictorial 
or graphic representations, additional faciUties for instruction in 
geography, history, science and kindred subjects, to schools, in- 
stitutions and organizations under the supervision of the regents. 
Material collected for this purpose may, under regents' general 
rules, be lent for a limited time to responsible institutions and or- 
ganizations for the benefit of artisans, mechanics and other citi- 
zens of the several communities of the state. "^® 

State Courses of Study. 

In Arkansas, Iowa, Maine, Michigan, Montana, North Da- 
kota, Pennsylvania, Vermont and Wisconsin, the state superin- 



18 New York Education Law, 1912, p. 24, sec. 94. 



INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION 111 

tendent is directed to prepare and distribute courses of study for 
the public schools of the state. Thus in Vermont, the 

"Superintendent may, when necessary, prepare and issue a 
course of study for use in the elementary schools as a requisite 
for admission to high schools and academies, and shall distribute 
one copy of such course to each teacher of the public schools and 
two copies to each school ofificer."^'-' 

It does not follow, however, that the state course is always 
adopted. In Iowa, the district board is by law required to pre- 
scribe the course to be studied, although it is urged by the state 
department that the state course be adopted. ^° In three of the 
above mentioned states, Montana, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, 
and also in Alabama (Co. H. S.), Missouri, North Carolina and 
Oregon, he is required to plan the curriculum for the secondary 
schools. North Dakota requires of the state superintendent that : 

"He shall prepare and prescribe a course of study for all the 
common schools of the state. "-^ 

In Oregon, the two years of recjuired work in high schools 
is laid down by the state superintendent, after consultation with 
county and district high school boards. -- 

In Wisconsin it is his dut}^ : 

"To prepare and publish from time to time, as occasion may 
require, a course of study for ungraded, state graded, and free 
high schools, and day schools for the deaf, with such comments 
and instruction as may be deemed essential for an intelligent un- 
derstanding thereof ; to compile, edit and distribute to the schools 
annually in pamphlet form matter adapted to and suitable for the 
intelligent observance of arbor, and bird day, and memorial day; 
to provide the subject matter and statistics necessary for the 
printing of all reports, pamphlets, and circulars published for any 
and all these purposes."-^ 

State courses of stud)^ have doubtless their advantages. Some 
degree of uniformity in a state system of schools is not only de- 
sirable but a necessity. In order to afford equal opportunities for 
all, to give any permanence and continuity to instruction under 
the unstable and ever-changing- teaching force, standardization be- 
comes necessary. There are certain fundamentals recognized 
everywhere as integral parts of any curriculum. Pupils from one 

19 Vermont School Laws, 1911, p. 7, sec. 923. 

20 Iowa School Laws, 1911, p. 55 (note). 

21 North Dakota School Laws, 1911, p. 12, sec. 5. 

22 See chap. III. 

23 Wisconsin School Laws, 1911, p. 6, sec. 6. 



112 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

place entering school in another ought to be able to continue their 
work without much loss of time and effort. Nevertheless, to 
grant to any official the authority to impose upon all localities an 
inflexible course of study, especially when the law does not re- 
quire special fitness for this office, would hardly seem the part 
of wisdom. Even though the superintendent is eminently quali- 
fied for this w^ork, it cannot be expected that he shall know the 
needs and conditions of all localities of the state fully, and pro- 
duce a course of study that will be best adapted to all parts of 
the commonwealth. - Nor is such a policy in sympathy with the 
spirit of the time. The school should be intimately related to the 
community, democratic ideas should prevail in its organizaton, as 
far as possible, and nothing should be done that will lessen the 
intelligent local interest and support so necessary to its highest 
efficiency. 

Moreover, a course of study is a social growth and not a 
static something imposed from without. It must be distinctly 
dynamic, varying from time to time to meet the changing social 
demands. It is the classroom that must finally give reality to 
every part of the course of study. To do this most effectively, 
the teacher must be placed in a position of responsibility regard- 
ing it. He must weigh and test and evaluate, and have a vital 
interest in the fundamental questions involved in the work. The 
course of study to be most effective must be a product of the 
combined experience of those who administer it. 

State Board of Education. 

In many of the states, there is in addition to the superin- 
tendent of public instruction a state board of education.-* In 
California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Iowa, Michigan, Mississippi, 
Missouri, North Carolina, Nebraska, South Carolina, Texas and 
Virginia, provision is made for such board by constitutional en- 
actment. The powers and functions of this board vary greatly 
in dift'erent states. In most of them their connection with ele- 
mentary and secondary education is of minor importance, but in 
a few states they bear the same relation to the public schools of 
the state that is usually sustained by the state superintendent. 

24 Ariz., Cal., Col., Conn., Del., Fla., Ga., Ida., Ind., Kan., Ky., La., 
Md., Mass., Mich., Miss., Mo., Mont., Nev.. N. .1., N. Mex., N. C, Okla., 
Ore., R. I., S. C Tenn., Tex., Utah, Va., Vt, Wash, 



INSBECTION AND &UPERVISION 113 

Thus Delaware, having no state superintendent, rests the general 
supervision and control of its public schools in the state board 
of education.-'^ 

Massachusetts, in 1909, consolidated the Board of Education 
and the Commission on Industrial Education. It was enacted: 

"The board of education shall consist of nine persons, three 
of whom shall annually in April be appointed by the governor, 
with the advice and consent of the council, for terms of three 
years, except as hereinafter provided. The members of the board 
shall serve without compensation. During the month of June 
in the current year the governor shall so appoint all of said nine 
members of the board, whose terms of office shall begin on the 
first day of July, nineteen hundred and nine, three for terms end- 
ing May first, nineteen hundred and eleven, three for terms end- 
ing May first, nineten hundred and twelve, and three for terms 
ending May first, nineteen hundred and thirteen. Four of the 
present members of the board of education, and one of the mem- 
bers of the commission on industrial education, shall be appointed 
members of the board of education provided for by this act. 

"The board of education shall exercise all the powers and 
be subject to all the duties now conferred or imposed by law upon 
the present board of education, or upon the commission on indus- 
trial education by chapter five hundred and five of the acts of the 
year nineteen hundred and six, and by chapter five hundred and 
seventy-two of the acts of the year nineteen hundred and eight, 
and acts in amendment thereof and in addition thereto, except as 
may otherwise be provided herein. 

"The board shall appoint a commissioner of education whose 
term of office shall be five years, and may fix his salary at such 
sum as the governor and council shall approve. Said commis- 
sioner may at any time be removed from office by a vote of six 
members of the board. He shall exercise the powers and per- 
form the duties now conferred or imposed by law on the secretary 
of the board of education. He shall be the executive officer of the 
board, shall have supervision of all educational work supported 
in whole or in part by the commonwealth, and shall report thereon 
to the board. The board shall also appoint two deputy commis- 
•sioners. at equal salaries, one of whom shall be especially qualified 
to deal with industrial education. The powers, duties, salaries 
and terms of office of said deputy commissioners shall be such as 
may be established from time to time by the board, but the board 
may. by a vote of six members thereof, remove from office at 
any time either of said deputy commissioners. The board may 
be allowed for rent, salaries of the commissioner, the deputies. 



2.-, Delaware School Laws, 1913, p. 5, sec. 1. 



114 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

agents, assistance and clerical service, and for travelling and 
Other necessary expenses of the commissioner, the deputies, 
agents, and of the board, incurred in the performance of their of- 
ficial duties, such sum as shall be appropriated by the general 
court annually, payable out of the treasury of the common- 
wealth."2« 

The state board of Connecticut is organized upon much the 
same plan, and excepting the provisions for industrial education, 
performs similar duties. 

The board "shall have general supervision and control of 
the educational interests of the state ; may direct what books shall 
be used in all its schools, but shall not direct any book to be 
changed oftener than once in five years ; shall prescribe the form 
of registers to be kept in said schools and the form of blanks and 
inquiries for the returns to be made by the various school boards 
and committees ; shall keep informed as to the condition and pro- 
gress of the public schools in the state ; and shall seek to improve 
the methods and promote the efficiency of teaching therein, by 
holding, at convenient places in the state, meetings of teachers 
and school officers, for the purpose of instructing in the best 
modes of administering, governing, and teaching public schools, 
and by such other means as they shall deem appropriate; but the 
expenses incurred in such meetings shall not exceed the sum of 
three thousand dollars in any year. 

"Said board shall, on or before the Monday after the first 
Wednesday in January, in each year, submit to the governor a 
report containing a printed abstract of said returns, a detailed 
statement of the doings of the board and an account of the con- 
dition of the public schools, of the amount and quality of instruc- 
tion therein, and such other information as will appraise the gen- 
eral assembly of the true condition, progress and needs of public 
education."-'^ 

State Supervision. 

State supervision of actual school work may be said to be 
still in its infancy. Only a few states have made special provision 
for this purpose. Virginia-^ is the only state in which it is under 
the absolute control of the state board of education, and where it 
is carried on by state officials. Aside from Virginia, Wisconsin 
has probably made the greatest advance in this respect, having 
made provision for inspection of high, graded and rural schools. 



26 Massachusetts, Sch. L. '11, p. 3, sees. 1, 2, 3. 

27 Connecticut School Laws, '12, p. 6, sec. 2. 
2s Virginia School Laws, '11, p. 3, sec. 7. 



INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION 115 

"He may also appoint in like manner, an inspector of free 
high schools, who shall assist him in visiting, inspecting and su- 
pervising such schools and aid in giving information and assist- 
ance in the organization and maintenance thereof in towns where 
there are no graded schools. When he is not engaged in the per- 
formance of said duties, said inspector may be assigned to such 
duties in the office of the state superintendent as the latter may 
designate."-^ 

"The state superintendent is hereby authorized to appoint 
two persons of suitable qualifications to assist him in inspecting 
and supervising the state graded and free high schools, and to 
aid him in giving information and needed assistance to localities 
in organizing such schools. Such persons shall be known as state 
school inspectors, and shall each receive an annual salary of six- 
teen hundred dollars, and reimbursement for all actual and neces- 
sary travelling expenses incurred, when duly certified to by the 
state superintendent ; said salary and expenses to be paid monthly 
from the general fund, and to be deducted from the annual ap- 
propriation provided for in this act, before the apportionment is 
made to the state graded schools. Said state school inspectors, 
when not engaged in the specific duties enumerated herein, may 
be assigned for such other duties as the state superintendent may 
determine and designate."''" 

"The state superintendent is hereby authorized to appoint 
a competent and suitable person as an inspector of rural schools. 
It. shall be the duty of said inspector to visit and inspect, as far 
as practicable, the rural schools of each county in the state and 
to procure information concerning the rural school districts. This 
inspector shall assist the state superintenednt in preparing such 
special reports to the governor and legislature, bearing upon the 
conditions and needs of rural schools as may be advisable. It 
shall also be the duty of this inspector to confer with each county 
or district superintendent concerning the condition of the schools 
in his county or district ; to consult with school officers, patrons 
and teachers in regard to school management, discipline, branches 
of study, school law and school sanitation, and by public lectures, 
conferences and meetings endeavor to arouse an intelligent inter- 
est in industrial and agricultural education, as well as in the usual 
routine work of the elementary rural school. The inspector pro- 
vided for by this chapter shall work under the direction of the 
state superintendent and shall report to him as often as may be 
deemed necessary, concerning the conditions found in the schools 



29 Wisconsin School Laws, 1911, p. 4, sec. 165a. 

30 Wisconsin School Laws, 1911. p. 214, sec. 496f. 



116 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

and districts inspected, and of the work done in the discharge of 
his duties. "^^ 

In Minnesota the State High School Board is authorized to 
appoint high and graded school inspectors : 

"It shall appoint a high and a graded school inspector, and 
such assistant inspectors and examiners as may be necessary, and 
fix their compensation ; but no person receiving a salary from a 
state institution shall receive any compensation under this sec- 
tion, and the pay of examiners shall not exceed three dollars per 
day, OT fifty cents per hour."^^ 

Attention might be called in this connection to the authority 
exercised by Massachusetts over local supervision. Towns below 
a certain valuation are required to form unions for the employ- 
ment of a superintendent whose qualifications are determined by 
the state board of education. 

"The school committee of two or more towns the valuation of 
each of which is less than two million five hundred thousand dol- 
lars, and the aggregate number of schools in all of which is not 
more than fifty nor less than twenty-five, and the school com- 
mittee of four or more towns the valuation of each of which does 
not exceed two million five hundred thousand dollars, without 
reference to the minimum limit in the aggregate number of schools 
aforesaid, shall form a union for the purpose of employing a su- 
perintendent of schools. The school committee of such towns 
shall be a joint committee, which, for the purpose of such union, 
shall be the agents of each town therein. Such union shall not 
be dissolved, except by a vote of a majority of the towns con- 
stituting the union, and the consent of the board of education to 
such dissolution, nor shall it be dissolved for the reason that the 
valuation of any one of the towns shall have so increased as to 
exceed two million five hundred thousand dollars, nor for the 
reason that the number of schools shall have increased beyond 
fifty, or in a union of less than four towns, shall have decreased 
below twenty-five. 

"When the chairman and secretary of such joint committee 
certify to the auditor of accounts under oath, that a union has 
been effected, that the towns, in addition to an amount equal to 
the average of the total amount paid, or to the amount paid each 
child, by the several towns for schools during the three years 
then last preceding, unitedly have appropriated and raised by 
taxation not less than seven hundred and fifty dollars for the sup- 
port of a superintendent of schools, and that a superintendent of 



31 Wisconsin School Laws, 1911, p. 8, sec. 167a. 

32 Minnesota School Laws, 1913, p. 85, sec. 250. 



INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION 117 

schools has been employed for one year, a warrant shall, upon the 
approval of the certificate by the board of education, be drawn 
upon the treasurer and receiver general for the payment of twelve 
hundred and fifty dollars, three-fifths of which shall be paid for 
the salary of such superintendent, and two-fifths thereof shall be 
apportioned and distributed among the towns forming such union 
on the basis of the amount appropriated and expended for a super- 
intendent in such towns for the preceding year and shall be paid 
for the salaries of teachers employed in the public schools therein. 
"In all superintendency unions in which any part of the ex- 
pense of the superintendent is borne by the comm.on wealth, the 
state board of education shall determine, by examination or other- 
wise, the qualifications of candidates for the position of superin- 
tendent of public schools ; and after the first day of January, in 
the year nineteen hundred and five, no person shall be elected to 
such position who does not hold a certificate of fitness and com- 
petency from said board : provided, however, that this act shall 
not apply to any superintendency union in which one town does 
not receive aid from the commonwealth for expense of the super- 
intendent, until the termination of the contract, if any, existing 
between such towns at the time of the passage of this act."^^ 

vState Supervision of Recent Growth. 

State supervision of instruction is largely a product of the 
last half century. The early schools were local, and what super- 
vision there was had to do with the administrative, rather than 
the professional, side of education. The schools received their 
support through fees, sales of land, lotteries, town taxes, and pri- 
vate bequests. As noted in chapter one, with the establishment of 
permanent school funds began the exercise of central control. 

The office of state superintendent was for a time a matter of 
experimentation. In some of the older states, it was established, 
abolished and then revived, and the duties of this office were often 
assigned to some other officer already provided for. Thus in 
New York, it was established in 1812 ; nine years later it was 
combined with the office of secretary of state, and not until 1854 
was it re-established. In Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, 
Louisiana and New York, the duties of this office were, for a 
time, performed by the secretary of state; in Colorado, by the 
state treasurer; in Oregon, by the governor. 

The first board of education was organized, in 1825, in North 
Carolina and known as "President and Directors of the Literary 



33 TVr-assachusetts School Laws, 1911, p. 32, sees. 43, 45. 



118 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

Fund." Ten years later, Missouri provided for a similar organi- 
zation known as the State Board of Education. Besides these 
two, and those of Connecticut and Massachusetts, there was only 
one other established before 1850, that of Maine, which was abol- 
ished six years later and has not since been revived. 

It is only within recent years that provision has -been made 
for real state supervision of elementary and secondary schools. 
The possibilities here are great if the work is done with intelli- 
gence and skill. If the inspector gives his attention, not to minute 
details of management of school and classes, but to the vital work 
of the school, if he is in possession of the best that thought and 
effort have produced anywhere bearing on teaching, organization 
and school administration to place at the service of the schools, 
if he has. the power of adaptability to circumstances, so that he 
may readily see the relative fitness of things, if he is animated 
with a spirit of helpfulness, so that he will suggest improvement, 
encourage honest efforts, inspire the teachers with energy, en- 
thusiasm and zeal, he will be a most potent force in raising the 
standard of elementary and secondary education. 

That it has been necessary for the welfare of society that the 
state direct and control more and more the educational interests 
cannot well be denied. 

"Unless the state is moving, the purposes of the state are not 
being fulfilled. The state which is not inspecting and improving 
its schoolhouses ; which is not preparing;, regulating, and advanc- 
ing its teaching service ; which is not shaping and stimulating and 
systematizing the work of its schools, through a department of the 
state government, and through universal expert supervision, to 
which it has given a dignity of standing and authority sufficient 
to justify the theories upon which its very act is taken, is a state 
whose government is in hands that are nerveless, or whose peo- 
ple are strangely and basely indifferent to the evolution of educa- 
tional thought and to the stern logic of educational events."^* 

Whatever may be the view as to the degree of centralization 
desirable, it cannot be gainsaid that the supervision of the state 
has become closer and closer. To enforce the principle of equal- 
ity underlying /Vmerican education this has been found necessary. 

"The public schools stand in precisely the same relation not 
only to every citizen, but to every inhabitant of the land. What 



34 Draper: American Education, p. 41. 



INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION 119 

the high seas are to the sailor, what the king's highway is to the 
landsman, the public schools are to every child on the road to 
knowledge. Equality of obligation in maintenance, and equality 
of right in enjoyment, is the legend which the law would write- 
across the front of every public schoolhouse."^" 

To insure this sovereign prerogative the state, in the interest 
of society as well as the individual, has assumed greater and 
ereater control of education. 



35 Draper: American Education, p. 57. 



120 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 



CHAPTER VIII. 

INFLUENCE OF HIGHER INSTITUTIONS ON 
SECONDARY COURSES OF STUDY. 

The Purpose of This Discussion. 

Ill the treatment of the subject of this chapter, it is not the 
intention to make a comprehensive study of the relation of sec- 
ondary schools and colleges, but rather to consider the question 
only in so far as it is affecting the secondary courses of study. 
While the control thus exercised by higher institutions is not 
strictly state control and may possibly be better characterized as 
extra-legal (with the exception of the University of the State of 
New York), yet the consideration of state supervision and in- 
spection would hardly be complete without reference to this re- 
lationship between high schools and colleges which has had a 
marked effect on secondary instruction. 

Historical Resume. 

Originally, high schools and colleges had no relationship, un- 
less possibly one of rivalry. The high school, as has been shown, 
originated as an outgrowth of elementary schools to answer the 
demand for more extended training. In time, however, these peo- 
ple's schools added to their aim of preparing for life that of pre- 
paring for college. In the effort to make the educational system 
continuous, there has sprung up a relationship between high 
schools and colleges which has given rise to many problems re- 
sulting in much discussion and readjustment, Though opinions 
differ widely as to what should be the nature of this relation, 
four methods of admission to college are in general use. The 
oldest method, that of examination, aside from its use by the col- 
lege entrance examination board, is now confined to Harvard, 
Yale, Princeton, Bryn Mawr, and a few other eastern institutions. 
The certificate plan, by which the candidate from the preparatory 
school is admitted on a statement from his principal, certifying 



INFLUENCE OF HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 121 

that he is considered quahfied for college work, prevails generally 
in New England. By the diploma method pursued in the south, 
the candidate is considered qualified by virtue of his diploma. 
Admission by accrediting prevails in the north central and west- 
ern states. The most perfected system of examination is that 
carried on by the University of the State of New York, the only 
one of the kind in the country. The University is an organiza- 
tion embracing practically all the provisions for secondary and 
higher education. The governing body is the board known as the 
Regents of the University of the State of New York, whose 
function includes .general control and inspection but not instruc- 
tion. The work of the University is divided into six departments, 
one of which is that of the high school. The nature and charac- 
ter of the latter is indicated in the following: 

'"The college and the high school department of the univer- 
'^ity are under a single department director. He is assisted by 
nine inspectors of schools, one of whom is employed as an in- 
spector of apparatus, and by a large staff of examiners. On the 
basis of reports made to this department, the regents distributed 
in 1901 a total of $292,311.81 to the secondary schools of the 
state. Formerly a portion of the money distributed by the regents 
was apportioned on the basis of credentials obtained by pupils in 
the , schools who had passed regents' examinations — a method, 
that is, of payment by results. The report of the director of the 
high school department for 1898 says of the examinations : Tp. 
June, 1898, the secretary stated to the regents that 10 years' ex- 
perience had confirmed his views, given to the board in 1889, 
that examinations have the highest educational value and that 
the small minority which would abolish them are extremists. It 
is believed, however, that these tests would be more valuable if 
they were used for their educational value and not at all as a 
guide in distributing public money. Inspection will enable us 
in most cases to determine satisfactorily without regents' exami- 
nations whether a school is maintaining a standard deserving aid 
from state funds.' 

'Tn accordance with this recommendation the method of pay- 
ment by results has been discontinued and apportionments are 
now made as follows : (a) $100 is allowed to each school ap- 
proved by the regents without regard to its size or special attain- 
ments ; (b) a sum not exceeding $250 for the purchase of ap- 
proved books and apparatus is allowed to each school raising for 
the same purpose an equal amount from local sources; (c) the 
balance of the fund is distributed on the basis of total attendance 



122 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

of academic students, provided that each student whose attend- 
ance is so counted must hold a 'regents' preUminary certificate' 
for admission to the school, or the school must have been approved 
by two university inspectors as having a higher entrance require- 
ment than the minimum prescribed for the preliminary certifi- 
cate. Of the $350,000 appropriated for this purpose under the 
pi-esent laws, about 20 per cent will be distributed under item 
(a), about 15 per cent under item (b). and about 65 per cent un- 
der item (c). 

"Regents' examinations are held in January and June in 
seventy-three subjects, covering all the subjects in the high school 
curriculum, and in March twenty-six subjects only. In 1901, 
these examinations were taken by 699 of the 711 secondary 
schools in the University. Each diploma issued by the regents to 
a graduate of a secondary school shows on its face the subjects 
in which its holder has passed regents' examinations. These 
diplomas are accepted in lieu of entrance examinations in the sub- 
jects which they cover by institutions of higher education not only 
in New York state but also generally throughout the United 
States. As the regents' preliminary examinations furnish the 
standard for admission to the secondary schools, their influence 
extends to all the lower grades, and large numbers of pupils from 
the ungraded rural schools take these tests in the neighboring 
high schools and academies.^ 

The Accrediting System. 

While the system of examinations with all its imperfections 
has had its beneficial efl^ect (and still has where in use) in com- 
pelling advance on the part of preparatory schools to meet the 
increasing college requirements for admission, it is the accredit- 
ing system which has done more than any other agency in rais- 
ing the standards and efficiency of secondary schools. 

No two universities pursue in detail the same method of ac- 
crediting, but the general policy is the same. No school is placed 
on the accredited list, unless on examination it is found to meet 
the University requirements for admission and the continuation 
of such relation is dependent on the maintenance of such charac- 
ter determined by subsequent periodical inspection by University 
authorities. The benefits derived from this system have been 
many It has enabled communities to see the deficiencies as well 
as excellencies of their schools and been instrumental in securing 
better school accommodation, better equipment, and better teach- 



1 Brown: Making of Middle Schools, p. 362. 



INFLUENCE OF HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 123 

ing force. It has greatly aided superintendents and teachers in 
maintaining high standards of scholarship. Through the presen- 
tation of university ideals, it has quickened the whole intellectual 
life of the community, aroused an interest in higher education on 
the part of many, which college education only, later could satisfy. 

College Domination. 

While the good that has already resulted from this system 
can hardly be over-estimated, the criticism today is that the uni- 
versities and colleges exercise too strong an influence over the 
secondary schools, that the former practically prescribe the 
courses of study of the latter and name their teachers ; that these 
courses of study are framed in the interests of the few who later 
attend college and do not meet the needs of the great mass of high 
school students. Whatever reasons there may be for such criti- 
cism, it should be remembered that in raising the cry of domin- 
ation of colleges and universities over secondary schools, that any 
school whatsoever which receives pupils for admission from a 
lower one exerts an influence over the latter, directly or indirectly. 
This, moreover, in any system of education is important. 

"Any substantial uplift in a system of education must come 
from above. Any great improvement or advance in a class of 
schools must come from a class of schools higher up. This fact 
is. now actually coming to be recognized by the lower schools 
themselves, in America, and that of itself is giving unwonted 
trend and character to the national school system. But it neces- 
sarily follows that the factors which enter into the scheme and 
give returns to the plans of the upper schools, exert very strong 
influence upon the kind of uplift and the direction of the de- 
velopment which these schools give to the lower and middle 
schools. "- 

The right of universities to determine their own conditions 
for admission cannot well be denied. To maintain that all high 
school graduates irrespective of their training or experience are 
equally well prepared for college work is simply a re-statement 
of the theory of formal discipline. Instead, however, of the dis- 
cipline formerly believed to be derived from the continued study 
of Latin and Greek, it is now intended to substitute subjects that 
meet modern industrial or local needs. As it makes no difference, 
seemingly, as far as college work is concerned, what these sub- 

2 Draper: American Education, p. 204. 



124 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

jects are, all that is necessary is that the candidates for college 
are bright and capable, the implication obviously is that what is 
required is discipline, power. 

"There is nothing in the make-up of the human being, taken 
in an isolated way, which furnishes controlling ends and serves 
to mark out powers. If we leave out the aim supplied from so- 
cial life we have nothing but the old 'faculty psychology' to fall 
back upon to tell what is meant by power in general or what the 
specific powers are. The idea reduces itself to enumerating a lot 
of faculties like perception, memory, reasoning, etc., and then 
stating that each one of these powers needs to be developed. But 
this statement is barren and formal. It reduces training to an 
empty gymnastic."^ 

To demand that any high school graduate shall be admitted 
irrespective of his preparation is not only unpedagogical and in- 
consistent with modern psychological thought, but puts a premium 
upon vacillating purposes of high school pupils. That such free 
admission would tend to lower the standard of university, as well 
as high school work, is evident. No teacher of any experience 
will maintain that the character of the work in a class is uninflu- 
enced by the preparation of the members of the class. It would 
take away from the high school the stimulus which comes from 
having to meet certain standards of efficiency. Nor does it ap- 
pear that it would especially serve the needs of those high school 
pupils who have no thought of a college course. To maintain that 
college courses and entrance requirements should be so framed as 
to afford equal college opportimities to the high school graduates 
who early determine upon a college career and those whose only 
aim is to manage in some way to obtain a high school diploma but 
later decide to attend college, is not dealing fairly with the former 
nor is it in accordance with natural law. The saying, "It is never 
too late to be what you might have been," would be nearer the 
truth if changed to "It is always too late to be what you might have 
l^een."^ While some high school students left wholly to their own 
devices may not decide to attend college until at the close of the 
high school course, it may well be doubted whether any real high 
school graduates who had a genuine desire to attend college were 
ever kept from so doing by college entrance requirements. What 
shall be the future of the high school graduate is determined in 



3D'6wey: Ethical Principles Underlying- Education, p. 12. 
4Halleck: Education of the Central Nervous System, p. 94. 



INFLUENCE OF HIGHER INSTITUTIONS 125 

no small degree by parents, teachers and friends and the ideals 
which they uphold and personify. College, as well as high school 
courses, must undergo changes, to meet the varying demands of 
the time. College entrance requirements have been greatly modi- 
fied in recent years. That other modifications are desirable, es- 
pecially in respect to language, is maintained by many. It is not 
apparent, however, that high school courses formed V\'holly in view 
of local interest, or dominated by the spirit of commerciaUsm, or 
imposed from without, irrespective of the demands of higher edu- 
cation, will give a better training to those pupils for whom the 
people's college is the finishing school. University requirements 
are now generally broader than those of state departments. The 
admission of graduates from any secondary school course would 
take away from the high schools the inspiration and help that 
necessarily comes from professional inspection. As supervision 
and inspection is absolutely essential to effective state control 
over education, the abolition of such inspection on the part of the 
universities and colleges would mean the further centralization 
of this power in state departments. It is difficult to see how such 
a change from double to single inspection would be in the inter- 
ests of freedom so loudly demanded. Nor is it apparent that a 
board of inspection independent of the universities, unfamiliar 
with college needs and conditions, except such as gained from 
outside observation and hearsay, would carry on this voluntary 
work of supervison more effectively and further the interests of 
all more successfully than is now done. 

This work of inspection on the part of universities and col- 
leges is a development of recent years.. The accrediting system 
originated in Michigan in 1871. was adopted by Indiana in 1873, 
by Wisconsin in 1878, and has met with such marked favor that. 
in 1894, the United States Commissioner of Education reported 
forty-two state universities and agricultural and mechanical col- 
legs, and about one hundred fifty other institutions as having 
adopted it," and in 1902, a list of three hundred fifty colleges 
which at least in part used this method of admission.*^ While this 
may not, strictly, be denominated state control, it is at least state 
v/ide in its influence and is indicative of the tendency toward cen- 
tralization in education. 



5 Report of Com. of Education, 1894-95, vol. II, p. 1172. 

6 Report of Com. of Education, 1902, vol. I, p. 531. 



126 





;3 


a 




o 




< 


> 


0) 

n 




(LI 


>> 


^ 


u 


0) 


M 


• »H 


> 


P^ 


w 


^ 


< 


■'3 


o 

4) 




:3 


») 




4-5 


01 




ai 


S^ 




Tl 


ti 




D 


0) 




Vh 












^ 


(4 




rr 






fl> 


a 




p^ 


> 



0) 

s 



APPENDIX 1 






S(M 

or' 



Q2 



O- 






4< £ 



•^ ca' a > o 



O I- -■ 






«!;<<j;<;c0OQQwWpHOWK22gS 



(M - 






.£ _o 



=! C «^ g^ 13-S 



^■s 









^ 
& 


rn 






g 

u 


03 



< 


::3 


X 


o 




!-i 


Ph 


OJ 


PM 


^ 



CO 









CO 

Si 


to 




t> 


A 


PPEJ 


sTD 


IX 

00 


r 


) 






17,' i 

36, 50 
17, 1 










- 


127 






?3 






: : 




: 




COr-i' 






■* . 

co" ■ 
(N ■ 


'■'- <M >c .'-;; 

>0 tP .t1 

>o of -c 
05 C<I -c- 


1 • 






- : : 


ojco 






• ■*" 

■ CO 




.CI 

•o 






















. -H CO 

• (■-" of 1 

. lO r-< 




















aJM 


< 

oo"— ■ 

o2 • 


(M^ — • 




■iM 




: 














•O) 


1 CO '■■■z 
■ cvi lo 


■ 












- - 








■■o 




: 


- 




: 














.05 


'■ CO !c£ 
. (M .0 




: 








: : 


flco 






o 
00 

IN 

C 






■ i: 




- 














.10 . L- 

.oo>c .a 
.OJ , lo .o. 

. .0« 00 . 
•CDt^O - .;£ 
.0-00 O . C 


'■ 


: 








- - 


ci^ 


^^. : 






:- 














■cs 






~6 '. 

M . 

M . 
N • 

N ■ 
N ■ 




:<^ : 
-.o^- ^ : 

■ lO L_J 

coW OJ . 

-~~^— CO 


























2 
§1 




loo 
.oq 

•QO" 
•O 




: 




■0 










:- 


Tf 0500 .c- 

ict^oooo • 
,-iTi<Oco -oc 


'. 












: : 








-^l^ 






C5 -^ 
^ IM 


i6 


- 




- 


o 










'.a-. 


CO '■ 

:. "^ CO io' 
.- "2 t- .i~- 

;;^ oi .,-1 

CO CO -lO 

CO t^ -lo 




: 










- 


oSco 

T3r-, 






'. 00 

. 00 

• M 

• 03 














!c 


O 
(0 












O 

•O l-H 

CO th 

CO 05 




















■< 

8 

X 

o 

32 

1 
1 


i 

si; 
< 


<- 


: 1 
< < 


ii 

s 
'a 

o 




B o 

11 
OC5 


: d 

■a 

■ o 

:c 

■ o 

: M 

. c 

. a 

• t- 

• d 

•s 

II 


0) 

c 


o 


>• 


03 

a; 




o 




3-! 

W 

0) 

a 
2 
£ 


s ■ 

il 

3 3 
S C 

« ca 


a. 

E 

< 
~3 
"S 


M 

^fl 

"cS 
C 
_M 

O 

Q 

1 

03 

a 

■si 


"a 
1 

t:' 
Is 


• Oi 

ii 2- 


■ > 

•J3 

r bl 

3 O 

30 




c 

0) 

'3 

a 

C3 

o 


• '■ 
>. '. 

1 : 

o ■ 

c . 

eg 
5ai 


si 


> 

o 


a 

d 

"s 
E 
■3 

03 

-a 
a 

c« 
U 

s 

-5 

c 

1 

CO 


i 

'x. 

03 

"o 
S 
1 
CL 

TJ 
C 

o3 

O 
<P 
J3 

H 


"0 

o 

'S 
03 
02 

-g 

-5- 

_o 

CU 
3 

H 


o 

a 
c 
O 

m 


> 

o 

X 
■£ 

3 


a 





128 



APPENDIX 3 



TS 





^ 


« 










1 






1 


a! 
a) 






1 
P< 




"m 






-(J 






en 


a 


<! 




o 


^ 


o 


"^ 




w 


>, 


w 


OS 
> 


"3 

> 


fk 


(L> 


+-I 


ft- 


,i:3 


o 



CO 












.<N (N 

.ira CD 

•O 00 
•CD CO 








.0 

.IM 

■0 
■CD 




- 






















:§7 

CC-H 




















: 


i 


1-5 rH 




























































• CM 












.coo 

.CICM 

•coco 












































C 




















: CD 

.00 - 
CM CM 

OCT. 

"MO 

•coco 
























OJr-l 

:z;- 








CO 






































•^ 

cci> 
^o 

00 iC 

coco 
























J3m 








CO 

2" 






































i-Ht> 
























§2 






^ o 
o ■* 

no >-l 

>n 00 


c 
to 




: 




: 




CO 


CO 

■0 

CO 


: 

CD 

l> • 












. or 

- c 
-5 




CD 


I; 






: 




CM 

CD 

CO 


CO 
iC 


: 


dco 









C 

c5 











































2 

CO 

CO 














CD 

00 



CO 

CO 










CO 

CO 

IN 




0; 




: 




: 








CO '. 

S : 

■JD - 
CM 










CO 

in 

co- 
ol 


: 


CO 


: : 








: 




































CO 
CO 

10 


















CO 
CO 

10 
































10 






















S5 

CM 

6 


















CMO 
000 

00 CO 

t^CM 




















< 

o 



s 
o 
a: 


■E 
M 

< 


03 


.2 
E 

< 


Q 


< 


c 
'S 





PC 


a 
c 

> 

c 

'> 




a, 
C 
2 
'S 
ai 

£ 




u 

c 

Q 


'5 
S 



c 

r 
►f 

^1 

0; 

£ 

s 
c 

■5 
c 
K 


S 
a; 

"bi 
C 


>• 


> 

p 

cS 



0) 

C 


c 




s 

3 


0; 



5 

(D 

c 
c 


w 

c 
'E 

H 
£ 

ci 


C 
1 
< 

c 



a 

Q 

a 

03 
M 




H 

3 02 

5 is 

4) 


3 


3 

t 
3 
"S 
2; 


& 






> 

0. 

o3 
SI 


C 


E 




c 

;> 

■n 
c 

>• 





0. 

E 


0/ 

c 

0: 

0- 


bf 

C 

S 


X 


= 

a 


X 


>■ 

c 

£ 

x 


&^ 

-c 



CI 

X 

ja 

■5 
E 

'E 

3 

"3 

1 

c 


X 


b 
e 

§ 
H 

"0 



-a 
a 

03 

> 

g 


1 

1 

E 

c3 
X 

1 

3 


,0 

G 



X 




s 

X 







.a 

O 
U 



X 


o 


H 


> 


FM 


0) 


Ph 


^ 



-rJ 

ri 



j3 au 



APPENDIX 4 



129 



QS 






— IM 



2^ 






CO roi>t^ 

IN Tf (M CO cc- 



3 fe fi >-. 



,o;^ 



.go's S-S-Si §■= g a;i3-3'5 fl o ■ojS'm 
X o^ S S'm'm?' S^r c c c a :g h-^ i3 S r; j3 js 



m X ■ — 



&&-. -^ ^ O 



■ S M 
■X! C 

3 o'c 



i-jr^ 3 
i^3.2 

. =i 3lcl5 90 a 

1^ 2 t a;^ o ^ • 
I ""o^^^-a 3 . 






130 



APPENDIX 5 



s c >> 

C rt --H 



^ c 















































































CO 
lO 


■N 

CO 

o 








CO 
.•o 

OJ 




ico 

:x 

'■a: 

•(N 


CO 

o or 










: 


ro X 

o o;' 
•f <N 


o^' 

<N 


: 










: : 


1? 




CO 








>*< 
IN 




': 


m 6 
,a -^co 














03 
t> o! t- 

-*i. to ■* 

Tj>- CO ^ 


-It 


: : 






; : 


- 










00 


: 


: : 




- 
























(N 

X CO X 

l> .-( t^ 

" X '-^" 

Ttt to Tt< 


X 

5 




: 








- - 


Is 




00 
cT 






- 




: 


(33 " '-^ 


en 
X 

en 










: 




3 


Oi 
X 












: : 












IN* 

<N 2^« 

i-iiSco 

tH oSi-HC 






^^s 






00 . 
-o 

rt IN 


CO 


: : 








CO 
00 














-' 


- 


CO 

X 




: 








: : 


>r 






1 
IN 








: : 




: 




CO ■ 














=°r CO 

- o^ o 

- Iz; o 2 

00 tj 

IN 03 O: 

-—^^ IN 


c 




- ' 






i 


"3 CO 






























X 








d " 








CO 03 
rt X 

.-H CO 














CO 

dX 
X.- 






1? 


CO 

IN 

CO 


: CO 
i> 

IN 

CO 


00 
CO 




00 
IN 

CO 




: 


00 

IN 

CO 




X ■ : 

CO 










: 


- 


X 

of 

CO 




: 








: : 




M IN - rt IN - 

CO CO r^CO 

!NIN -HIN 




IN 

CO 

IC 
(N 




: 






?5 

p 






IN IN 

COCO 

(NIN 


: 


- - (N 

CO 

lO 
IN 


- : 






; : : 


< 

C 



o 


< 


0) 
6 


£ 
< 


> 

C 
o 

< 


c 
'c 

0. 

C 



m 


e 

> 

c 
O 

'> 

O 


a. 

.s 

'Z 

V2 

a 
S 
o 
Q 


bi 

c 

03 

Q 




E 
o 
O 

0. 

a 

B 

s 
s 

a 
O 

« 


3 

a 

Xi 


> 


> 

c 

u 

a 
c 

c 

c 




C 
o 

-5 

B 

0) 

c 
£ 


O 

C 

o 
c 
c 

K 


M 

C 

H 


s 

< 

C 


fcU 

S3 
_M 

a 

Q 

-a 
c 

S3 
M 

c 

1 

1 


>5 

^ S 

1 


S 


> 

■a 

= 


> 

a 

o 
C 


> 

c 

03 
%. 
61 




'c 
PL, 


a. 
C 

■£ 
> 

a 

c 

> 



> 


u 

£ 

n 

O 

> 03 
Ph 


bl 
C 


s 

"o 

o 

j3 
X 


c 
o 

1 

1 

o 
O 

* 

X 


c 

c: 
X 


> 

c 

03 
X 

X. 

"5 
S 
'c 

03 

C 
o: 

= 
1 

p 
X 


c 
1£ 

c- 
03 

c 

c 
03 
u 

a, 
"§ 

03 
O 

o 

J3 


,c 
'S 

03 
X 

X 
3 


s 
o 
O 

X 


>■ 

u 
O 

X 

X 


to 
c 

1 



132 



m 
OB 



APPENDIX 6 



'A(\ pajBdajj; asjnoQ 8;B:>g 



•aSaiioo JOj aot^'Bj'Bdaijj 



•ramniuipi 







CO CD 



a W W 



<N_:tDT3iO 

> - .M -O 
• M OC 03 (N OJ 1-1 



•pj^og jooqog 



CO 00 t-it^lN 



•norjBonp[j jo paeog -oq 



•aa^l-iairaoQ 



•noT^Bonp3 jo pjcog 3^i3^g 



•^uapna^uijadng o^B^g § 



t^ JIJco 



coco >Ot»< -tJ 



•pjBOg lOOTJOg 



■uoT^Bonpa JO pjBog "oq 



■^napna-juijadng -03 



•UOTIJBOnpa JO pj-BOg Sl-BJg 



•^uapna^nuadng a^tj^g 



•85.n:jB^g 



CO OJ .i^ Tt^ +i i-t 
OTl'd-^'O'-l 



o ^ :-| 



<< < UUOQfi* o W 



5 ,25 M M >3 



APPENDIX i 



133 



O 
O 

-MO 

523 




fSt. Supt. 12, 
4641, 70. 
4791 & 154, 
11 


uO-* 


00 
. IN 

a 


■a 
aJoT 










a 
m 

••-^IN 

M-i 




/S.Bd.ofEd. 
\29,48 

/St. Supt. 
\57, 1012 








\l837x 
/St. Supt, 
\7, 923 


/S.Bd.ofEd. 
158, 131 

/S.Bd.ofEd. 


rt *.: ft 






IN 


in 

oo 


CO 

(N t> 

05 O 

^ ?1 
IN IN 

rH IN 




■71 

in 

m 










00 
m 

oin 
rtin 


























o 

IN 

co" 
t> 


o 

O IN 
lO rt 

LO O 
<N LO 








CO 

IN 

03 
O 

in" 






OCO 

S2 






CO 

o 




00 T}< 

CO O 
CO t^ 

CO CO 
1-1 Ol 






o 

in 1-1 

cnin- 
t^in 






































05 

in 
o 

IN 


00 I> 

-H ir 




in 

CO 

in 

CO 




O 
Os" 


ci 

o" 

CO 


CO 

go 




o 
xo" 

C5 ■* 




IN 
(N 


o 


CO 

co"^" 
t>x 




•o.S ac3 
c<i >- a c 




• CO 

■ t^ 

. o 

'■ t^ 






































00 

CO 
CO 

CD 
CO 
































































































o 

CO 




in 

00 




cT 




CI 






c- 






CO 

00 




IN 

o 


in 






X 
CO 


or 




















CO 
IM 

a 

o 

IN 














CO 






a 

c 


5 OQWrt 












• c 








. o 
en 


























00 2 
>n o 






<N 


c<iin 

OO 
COtJH 


CO 
6 
CO 








o 
I> 

IN 

co" 


o 

IN 
IN 


^ 




00 

co" 




00 -H 

CO IN 


<N 


















































































CO 

-CO 

l>05 




































CO 

00 
















































00 
IN 




IN 

o" 














20 








O 
O 

O 




























































CO 
in 
ji 

<£ 

IN 




cot>r 




CO 

in 

o" 

IN 


o 

to 

m 








in 

g 




IN 


00 

0-* 

00 r^ 


o 


CO c» 

t^ COIN 00 

-^ i-HCOt^ 

t>r ooiniN 

T-* MCOCO 


Si 


■^~~'co 
_ in 

X 7. S^t-'S 

— ' c-r -h" -1 Tj- o:" 
t^ ■* -t-~'--IN 


0. 


3 


a! 




c 
c 


§ 


o 

% 


c 

o 


x; 

:! 


2; 




2: 




> 
Z 




a 


Q 


IS 

o 


o 


c 
c 


pi 


o 

X 




c 
c 

r-' 


X 


"5 






1 


> 


'I 


O 

>- 





134 



APPENDIX 8 



O g 



w 
G 
O 



Ph 



o 

H 

H 
<! 






o 
<^ 

CO 


.Mo . . 

.OCO . . 

• ^t> • • 

• 00^ ■ ■ 


■ . LO 00 . 

■ •oiim" • 




"-0 ' 

o" • 












•|OJiuo3 OBUB'^oag ofvi 




























uBiJB^oag aoj uoT^Budojddy oj\j 












.CO 

.to 

.(M 

•IC 

• 1^ 












to 

to 




■papnpxg aq o:^ %oi<[ siqig 














00 >o 
rtooci 

ot-'c 

rt<33lO 










tv, q; C3i ■ 

..Q . • 
•-Olio • 


•pa;Tqiq 
-OJj s:^^ooe: uBUB|08g JO asfi 




03 t-i-l . . 

cot^oo • ■ 


•o 

■ lO 






x 

;cc 




^ in 

CO ^4 




o 

H 
Z 

o 
o 


uioaj a9J^ aq oj looqo'g atjqnjj 
















00 












•papnpxa aq o% :|ojs[ s\q]Q 




























■pajinbsy; %oisi sasp 
-J3xg snoT3ip>i ib aouBpua^iy 








X ■ 
oT ■ 




o 
oJ 
















•pajiqiqojj sjfoog n^uB^oag 












to 

(35 
















•pa;i 
-qTqojj uoTionjjsuj uBiJB^oag 




r-^ 


• oTcr ■ 




to 
















•pajiqiqojfj sasod.mj 
snoiSipy; j'oj' bUOi^^Bijdojddy 


CO • 

to • 


rH00t~ . 

. > . -c 

33050 -^ 


CO o 
ri a 
- -to 
^00 


'Oco 
cT oc 




■c- 

■QC 


C^ 




X 

"^ ^CO 
-S ■* 00 




iZ2 


J 
< 


CO 

i 

< 


= c 

03-- 


>- c ' 

° sS 

o o i 


Eorr 


0-3 

■S.s 

T3=: 


C 
03 r 

C C 


C C 


c 

•Sc 

■ '£ 1= 


2 


1 

X 
t. 

<1 


3 

IS 


4 

G 
C 

1 



APPENDIX 9 



135 



: 




"5: 








C 












o 










CO 
O 
IM 

O) 






00 
in 




























a 
































CO 

ca 
10 




















l-'O 
go) 
























CO 

02" 

04 


































CO 






OT3 

CD 
3 CD 




^ ■" - 
■J- <D04 




































37, 105 
82, 92, 9 
No reiigio 
Lord's 




p 

l> 






























03 

CO 










































































04 









ca 








1 ^ 






















































.. 




" 














































04 


























































-H»-H 




oc 


















-*co 

rt 04 CZl 














COO 

-CO 

- 

tH CO 




o 




OJ 05 I— ICD 




04 t~ 

O . 


CO 

0> T-H _ 

. -CD 
^ 0004 


CO 

.0 

t~ r-l 


-*< 




oc 
i-<00 


'c 

C 
"5 

i 


c 




r 

c 

5 


2 


> 

2 


1 

If 

£ 
2 


c 
c 

2 


c 
a 

c 
2 


C 
>■ 

2 


1 

c 

2 


c 

c 
2 


c 

X 

C 


1 

c 

X 

C 


c 
c 
tl 

t- 
C 


OS 

'c 

r 
_> 

0- 


c 

_o 
X 


c- 
C 

c 

X 

1 


-1 

C 

X 

c 
a: 


c 
c 

a. 


dJ 





c 
c 
£ 

c- 
> 


'S 
'5 

> 


C 
C 
"S 
c 
It 


'c 

'5 
0.!: 
> 




c 

c 
c 
c 

1 


bj 
C 

's 

c 
> 


1 



136 



APPENDIX 10 



•puog 


lO ; 


.0 . . 
.0 . . 
.0 . . 


i :§s ;§s§ : 

. .CO .oolo ■ 


5,000 
10,000 
10,000 

5,000 




•XjBJBg 


ooooco '. 
oooooo . 
qcoqqio^ .5 


soooooooooooooooocooc 

30000000QOOOOOOOCOOOO 

o_q.^-iqu^qiqu5qqq»cqioi-'3qqqc^c;o 

■9" W Cq b^ C»5 T^" C^" IN 10 Tti" CO T^" Tl<" Tf (N re M C^f !N tT 0" 


•uoT^Bonpg 
JO pjBog a^BiS Jo' jaqtuap\[ 




ib : 

'. "^ '. 

■I ■ 


h fl (- . 

03 0) d . 

Ill :" 

<u • 

QJ t.! O) . 

CCPhM -c 


secretary 
President . . 
President 


Secretary 

Secretary 

President 
President 

Secretary 


'. « 


■pajmbaj suoi^^oijTiBnf) 








:: : :::;:; 


'.'.'.'.'. '.Z ! c! 

:::::; :| 




•mjax 


Tj< O) (M iM (M ^ • T 


i- <M (M Tj- C-) (>1 CM ■* ■*( M Tf >0 CICM -jH r^ -rf CM Tt- C-l 11-; 


iuaunuroddy — uoipatag 






• -13 ■ 

• 'S ■ 

: :-d '■ 

: :« : 


" ' " ! ! i ! .' t-f 
' . 
: ; : ; c 

a3 

:> 

. . 

:::::::: :o 


Governor 
Bd. of Ed 

Governor 


> > 

16 


•a;o^ jBjndoj — uoiiaajag 


: ;: 


: : ; :: 




; :: :::::: 




•pails![C(B;sa svm. aoyjo ivax 

1 


OOXXOOOOOO^OOOOOOGCOOXXQOOOGCOOCCOOGOOOCKOOOOQCOCX 


10 


STATE 


s 
< 




oainorma 

Connecticut 

Florida 


Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 


Maryland 

Michigan 

Mississippi 

Montana 

Nevada 


: ; 
; : 



APPENDIX 11 



137 



goo 

Oo_C 



ooocooooooocoooooc 
o o c o o.c ooocoooooooo 
o q_o 'O o o o^oi^io o_in Tt< o m o o o o 
CO lo" T^ c^ cc u-f Tf ^" c^" co" c^f c<f c^" TO CO -* lO 'jT 



o3 03 



C3 o3 0) 
a; CJ-)^ 

t-l frH «3 

o o 3J 
MCOPh 



0) 01 

Ah PL, 



„!N?q(M(N'*'*^M(NiM(N-*M-*TtHTj<-^TjH 







o 
c 

> 
o 
O 


^ 




o 

C3 
u 
o 
> 

o 
O 




3 
S 

0) 

Eg 

< 

e 
O 











c^^t~t~-^!^l:o•^?QC^^^-'-^(Mf~0(^l03 0^o^ 



S5 
•5 o 



OP 

J3ja 



Z 2 



•5 5^ c 









138 APPENDIX 12 



•painqu^sip puB 
paijuud aq o:^ sm-bj jooqbs asn^Q 



•sjo-jonpuoo ainjiisui ;uioddy 



•siauT 
-uiBxa JO pjBoq ajB^s juioddy 



.\iBi (ooqDS JO snoijsanb aptoaQ 



•g'juapnojni 
-jadns -OQ jo uoijuaAuoo ijbq 



•suoi:). 
sanb uoijBuira-Bxa -OQ aj^dajj 



•Apnjs JO 
asjuoo ajnqu^sip pu-B ajBdajfj 



ajinijaui jSjaqoBaj joj aSuBjJV 



•auioonT punj jooqos noijjoddy 



•sjsajajui jBuoij 
■Bonpa jaAO uoisiAiadns jBjauaQ 



•jjodaH iBrauaig 



•jaoda^ IBnnuv 



m.5 O 



"5 2 



J'a 






J B s 



£ c 



CU OJ c 



APPENDIX 13 



130 













: 




: 






: 




- 




: 






: 










: 






: 


: : : 




: : 






' ^ 


: 








- 














- 








' 
















































: 




















- 




















: : 






















: 




- 








' 












: 












: 


: 


: 


- 
















- 




















: 


* 


' 






: 




: 






































: : 












: 




: 


: 




: 




: : 


: 








: : : 


: : : : 








: : 


: : 






- - 




- 


: 


: : 




: : : 




- 




: : : 




' ' 


: 


: 






I 

e 

B 

a 
2 


c 
It 

' c 

■ g 
a 


c 
a 


c 

C 

c 
2 


C 
2 


c 
C 


C 

c 


c 
c 
b 

u 

c 


■'I 
(1 


C 
C 


c 

1 

c 


C 


c 

I 
a 
c 
e 

a 


a 
E- 


^ 




'5 
> 


) ^ 


"E 
'5 
'r 


C 


c 
c 





140 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 



A History of All Nations from the Earliest 
Times. Philadelphia and New York, 1905. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Adams, C. K. Admission to College by Certificate. — -Educational Rev., 
Vol. V, 69. 

Adams, C. K. The Admission to College and Universities on Certificate. 
— ^Proceeding-s of Wis. Teachers' Association, 1896, p. 101. 

Andrews, Chas. M. 

Fiske, John 

Flathe, Theodore 

Hertzberg, G. F. 

Justi, F. 

J. von Pfiugh-Hartlung 

Prutz, M. Philippson-Hans 

Williams, F. Wells 

Angell, James B. The Relation of University to Education. — Proc. 
N. E'. A., 1887, p. 147. 

Associated Harvard Clubs. Second Report of Com<mittee on "The 
Relation of Harvard University to Schools of Secondary Education." 
Chicago, 1906. 

Atkinson, J. J. Primal Law. London, New York and Bombaj', 1903. 

Aiken, W. E. The Study of English Literature. — Education, 26, 36. 

Auberon, Hert)ert (and others). The Sacrifice of Education to Exam- 
ination: — ^Nineteenth Century, Vol. XXIV, 617. 

Barker, M. Mien. A Study in Elementary English. — ^Education, Vol. 
V, 91. 

Blackman, Frank W. The History of Federal and State Aid to Higher 
Education in the United States. — ^Circ. Inf. No. 1, 1890. 

Bogen, Boris D'. The History of Teaching Foreign Language. — ^Educa. 
20, 340. 

Boone, Richard G. Education in the U. S. ; Its History from the 
Earliest Settlements. New York, 1893. 

Ronton, Eugene. The Study of English. — Educa., Vol. V, p. 91. 

Broome, Edwin. A Historical and Critical Discussion of College Ad- 
mission Requirements. New York, 1902. 

Brown, E. E. Secondary Education. — Educa. in the U. S., Monograph 4, 
Albany, 1900. 

Brown, B. E. Recent Development of the Accrediting System. — Report 
of the U. S. Com. of Educa., 1903, Vol. I, p. .570. 

Brown, E. E. The Making of Our Middle Schools. New York, 1903. 

Brown, J. F. System of Accrediting by the Universities and Its Effect 
on the High School and Its Development. — Sch. R., Vol. XII, 299. 

Brown, J. F. What is the Effect of Accrediting Schools by the Uni- 
versities upon the High School and Its Development; National 
Conferences on Secondary School. — Education and Its Problems, 1904, 
(pub. by N. W. Univ.) 

Brown, J. F. The American High School. New York, 1909 

Brownell, Jane li. Effect of College Entrance Examinations on the 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 141 

Secondary Schools; Universitj^ of the State of N. Y. — Regent's 

Report for 1903, pp. 30-39. 
Bryan, G. S. Influence of State Universities on the Public School Sys- 
tem. — Proc. N. E. A., 1890, p. 9. 
Bryce, James. Studies in History and Jurisprudence. — Nation, Vol. 

74, 153. 
Bu'Ckham, M. H. English Lang-uage and Literature. — Barnard's Am. 

Jour, of Educa., Vol. XVI, p. 555. 
Butler, N. M. Uniform College Admission Requirements witli Joint 

Board of Examiners. — Educa. Rev., Vol. XX, p. 519. 
Butler, N. M. The Meaning of Education and Other Essays and Ad- 
dresses. New York, 1898, 1904, 1907. 
Cance, A. E. The Legal Status of Religious Instruction in the Public 

Schools. (U. W. '06.) 
Canfleld, A. G. What Does the College Expect of the High School? 

— Journal of the Mich. Schoolmasters' Club, 1907. 
Carlton, P. F. Economic Influence upon Educational Progress in the 

United States, 1820 to 1850. — Bulletin U. W. No. 221, 1908. 
Carman, George N. The Object and "Work of the North Central Asso- 

ciation.r — Proc. of the Eightli Annual Meeting of N. Cen. Assn. of 

Colleges and Secondary Schools, 1903. 
Cary, C. P. What Is the Effect of the System of Accrediting Schools by 

the Universities upon the Hlgli School and Its Development. — Proc. 

Nat'l Conference upon Secondary Education and Its Problems, 1904. 
Census Reports, U. S., 1900. 

Chapin, A. C. Examinations and Apology.^ — Education, Vol. XXI, p. 387. 
Chapman, F. W. The Question of Language as Affected by Our New 

Political Relation. — ^Education, Vol. XXI, pp. 357, 579. 
Commons, J. R. Races and Immigrants in America. New York, 1907. 
Clews, Elsie. Educational Legislation and Administration of tlie Colonial 

Government. New York, 1899. 
Coleman, J. M. Social Ethics: An Introduction to tlie Nature and 

Ethics of the State. New York, 1903. 
Constitutions of the Various States. 

Consular Reports, 1904, Vol. XXX, Emmigration to U. S. 
Cotton, Fassett A. Commissioned Higli Schools. — Report of the Supt. 

of Pub. Ins., 1906. 
Courtliope, W. J. The Study of English Language and Literature as 

Part of a Liberal Education. — Eclectic Mag., 121, 177.' 
Davidson, Thos. A History of Education. New York, 1900. 
Day, Henry N. Study of the English Language. — Barnard's Am. Jour. 

of Educa., Vol. XVI, 641. 
Dewey, John. Ethical Principles Underlying- Education. Chicago, 1909. 
Dexter, E. G. History of Education in the U. S. New York, 1904. 
Dexter, E. G. What Is the Effect of the System of Accrediting Schools 

by the Universities upon the High School and Its Development? 

— Report Nat'l Conference on Sec. Educa,, 1904. 
Draper, Andrew Sloan. Educational Organization and Administration. 

— Educa. in U. S., Monograph No. 1, Albany, 1900. 
Draper, Andrew Sloan. American Education. Boston, 1909. 
Duffleld, D. B. Education: A State Duty. — -Barnard's Am. Jour, of 

Educa,, Vol. Ill, p. 81. 
Dutton, S. T. and Snedden, David. The Administration of Public Educa- 
tion in the United States. New York, 1909. 
Eggleston, Edward. The Transit of Civilization from England to 

America in the 17th Century. New York, 1901. 
Mliott, E. C. State School Systems. — Bulletin U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
tion, 1906, No. 3. 



142 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

Elliott. E, C. State School Systems. — Bulletin U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
tion, No. 7, 1909. 
Fairlie, J. A. Centralizing- of Administration in New York. New York, 

1898. 
Fiske, John. Old Virginia and Her Neig-hbors. Boston, 1897. 
Freeman, E. A. Race and Language. — ^Contemporary Review, Vol. XXIX, 

p. 741. * 

Gardiner, George E. Should Power to Create or Capacity to Appreciate 

Be the Aim in the Study of English? — Education, Vol. XV, 133, 

222, 363. 
Giddings,' P. H. The Principles of Sociology, an Analysis of the 

Phenomena of Association and of Social Organization. New York, 

1896. 
Giddings, F. H. Democracy and Empire, with Studies of the Psycho- 
logical, Btoonomic and Moral Foundation. New York, 1900. 
Giddings, F. H. The Elements of Sociology; a Text Book for Colleges 

and Schools. New York and London, 1906. 
Hadley, A. T. Conflicting Views Concerning Entrance Examination. 

— Sch. Rev., Vol. VIII, 586. 
Hadley, A. T. The Use and Control of Examinations. — Educa. Rev., 

Vol. XXI, p. 286-300. 
Hale, Horatio. Language as a Political Force. — Andover Review, Vol. 

VI, p. 173. 
Hale, Horatio. Race and Language. — Popular Science, Vol. 32, 340. 
Halleck, R. P. Education of the Central Nervous System. New York, 

1896. 
Hamerton, P. G. The Learning of Languages. — Forum, Vol. XIII, p. 219. 
Hamilton, Wm. Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic. Boston, 1874. 
Harper, W. R. The Trend in Higher Education. Chicago, 1905. 
Harris, W. T. Elementary Education. — Educa. in the U. S., Monograpli 

No. 3, Albany, 1900. 
Harris, W. T. The General Government and Public Education. — Proc. 

N. B. A., 1890, 481-489. 
Harris, E. L. The Public High Scliool, Its Status and Present Devel- 
opment. — ^Proc. N. Cen. Assn. for 1907. 
Harvey, L. D. Inspection of High Schools. — Annual Report of Wis. State 

Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1899 to 1900. 
Hill, A. R. What Determines Fitness for Entrance to College? — Pro- 
ceedings Sixth Annual Meeting, N. Cen. Assn. 1901. 
Hinsdale, B. A. Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 

U. S. New York, 1898. 
Hinsdale, B. A. Documents Illustrative of American Educational 

History. — Rep. Com. Educa., '92 to '93, Vol. II, pp. 12, 25 to 1414. 
Johnson, Clifton. Old Time Schools and School Books. New York, 1904. 
Judd, C. H. Psychology. New York, 1907. 
Judson, H. P. Report of the Chairman of the Committee on Accredited 

Schools. — Proc. N. Cen. Assn, 1907. 
Kirk, John R. The Service that Inspection Should Be Expected to 

Render the School and the Community. — Proc. N. Cen. Assn, 1903. 
Kirkland, J. H. College Admission Requirements and Secondary School 

Work. — School Review, Dec, '05. 
Ladd, G. T. Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory. New York, 1894. 
Lang, Andrew. Social Origins. London, 1903. 
Laurie, S. S. Lectures on Language and Linguistic Metliod in the School. 

Cambridge, Eng., 1890. 
Laurie, S. S. The Training of Teachers and Methods of Instruction. 

Cambridge, Eng., 1901. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 143 

Lefevre, Andre. Race and I,anguag-e. New York, 1894. 

Lieber, Francis. Political Ethics. Philadelphia, 1875. 

Liiddell, Mai'k H. Eng-lish L,iterature and the Vernacular. — ^Atlantic, Vol. 
81, p. 614. 

Ijocke, G. H. College Entrance Examination Board. — School Review, 
Vol. 14, p. 732. 

Mann, Horace. Lectures and Annual Reports on Education. Cambridge, 
Mass., 1867. 

Martin, G. H. Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System. 
New York, 1894. 

Massachusetts School Reports. 

MeKechnie, W. S. The State and the Individual, Glasgow. 1896. 

Mead, W.m. E. Conflicting Ideals in the Teaching of English. — ^Educa. 
Rev., 25, 275. 

Meriwether, Colyer. Our Colonial Curriculum. Washington. 1907. 

Monroe, Paul. A Text Book in the Histoi'y of Education. New York, 
1905. 

Mosely Educational Commission to the United States of America. Lon- 
don. 1904. 

N. E. A. Proceedings. 

O'Shea, M. V. Education as Adjustment. New York, '03. 

O'Shea. M. V. Dynamic Factors in Education. New York, '06. 

O'Shea, M. V. Social D'evelopment in Education. New York, '09. 

Pickard, J. L. School Supervision. New York, 1890. 

Pickering. John. The Power and Authority of School Officers and 
Teachers. New York, 1885. 

Prince, John T. Organization and Supervision of School. Syracuse, 
New York, 1906. 

Ripley, Mary A. The Teaching of the English Language and Literature. 
— Educa., Vol. IX, p. 537. 

Ross, E. A. Social Control. New York, 1901. 

Ruediger. W. C. The Principles of Education. New York, 1910. 

Richardson. John M. The Educational Value of Examinations. — Sch. 
Rev., Vol. VII, p. 416. 

Sayce, A. H. Introduction to the Science of Language. London, 1900. 

Schaeffer, N. C. Powers and Duties of State Superintendent. — Proc. 
N. E. A., 1905, 350. 

Schilling, H. .T. The Educational Value of English. — Educa. Rev., Vol. 
IX, 377. 

School Laws: Ala. '11, Ariz. '12, Ark. '11, Cal. '13, Col. '14, Conn. '12, 
Del. '13, Fla. '11, Ga, '12, Ida. '13, 111. '12, Ind. '11, Iowa '11, Kan. '13, 
K3'. '12, La. '12, Me. '13, Md. '12, Mass. '11, Mich. '11, Minn. '13, 
Hawaii '11, Miss. '12, Mo. '13, Mon. '13, Neb. '13, Nev. '13, N. H. '13, 
N. J. '11, N. Mex. '09, N. Y. '12, N. C. '13, No. Dak. '11, Ohio '12, 
Okla. '12, Ore. '13, Pa, '13, R. L '12, S. C. '12, So. Dak. '13, Tenn. '11, 
Tex. "13. Utah '13, Vt. '11, Va. '10, "Wash. '13, W. Va. '11, Wis. '11, 
Wyo. '13. 

Schurman. J. G. The Report on Secondary School Studies. — Sch. Rev., 
Vol. II, '93. 

Seth, James. Educational Value of Examinations. — Vol. XII, p. 1. 

Shurtleff, N. B. Records of the Governor and Company of the Mass- 
achusetts Bay in New England. Boston, 1853. 

Smith, Minna C. The Ancient Modern Language Controversy. — Educa., 
6. 405. 

Snoddy, James S. English Composition in Elementary Schools. — Educa., 
20. 353, 423. 

Spencer. Herbert. Social Statics. New York, 1896. 



144 STATE CONTROL OF INSTRUCTION 

Snyder, J. L. What Does the College Expect of the High School? 

— Journal of Michigan Schoolmasters' Club, 1907. 
State Reports of Supreme Court Decisions: 12 Allen, 95 111., 79 111., 

97 111., 64 Iowa, 44 Iowa, 108 Ind., 51 Kan., 69 Kan., 3S Me., 30 Mich., 

118 Mich., 77 Mo., 31 Neb., 65 Neb., 77 N. E., 29 Ohio State, 23 Ohio 

State, 32 Vt., 35 Wis., 76 Wis., 4 S. W., 103 Pac. 
Stimson, P. J. Federal and State Constitutions of the United States. 

Boston, 1908. 
Steele, Harold. The Articulation of High Schools and Higher Educa- 
tional Institutions. U. W., '08. 
Street, Ida M. Some Thoughts on English in Secondary Schools. — Educa., 

19, 74, 225. 
Suzzalo, Henry. The Rise of Local School Supervision in Massachusetts. 

New York, 1906. 
Thorndike, Edward L. Future of Entrance Examination Board. — Educa. 

Rev., May, 1906. 
Thorpe, Francis N. The Federal and State Constitutions. Washington, 

1909. 
United States Commissioner of Education Reports. 
Ward, L. P. Dynamic Sociology. New York, 1883. 
Ward, L. F. Psychic Factors of Civilization. Boston, 1893. 
Ware, Fabian. Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry. New 

York, 1901. 
Webster, W. C. Recent Centralizing Tendencies in State Educational 

Administration. — Columbia University Studies in History, Economics 

and Public Law, Vol. VIIL 
Warner, Mabel L. A Plea for More English Composition in Secondary 

Schools. — Educa., Vol. XXL p. 163. 
Weeks, Arland D. English as a Foreign Language. — Educa., Vol. XXIV, 

p. 470. 
White. True W. Claims for English as a Study. — Educa., Vol. XII, 

p. 273. 
Whitney, W. D. Language and Education.— North American Rev., Vol. 

113, p. 343. 
Willoughby, W. W. An Examination of the Nature of the State. New 

York, 1896. 
Willoughby, W. W. Social Justice. New York, 1900. 
Wilson, Woodrow. The State: Elements of Historical and Practical 

Polities. Boston, 1889. 
Wolfe, L. B. English in the Elementary School. — Educa. Rev., Vol. 

XXVIII, p. 152. 
Wood, Frederic. Government and the State. New York, 1902. 
Wright, Carroll D. Outline of Practical Sociology with Special Refer- 
ence to American Conditions. New York, 1899. 
Young, Walter H. The High School of New England as Judged by the 

Standard of the College Certificate Board. — Sch. Rev., Feb., '07. 



1 iRnARY OF CONGRESS0 

020 975 553 1 



